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This paper examines the development of Russian industry in comparison with that of Ukrainian industry during 1995–2004 in an effort to ascertain to what extent, if any, Russian manufacturing showed signs of succumbing to ‘Dutch disease’. Ukraine and Russia began the market transition with broadly similar institutions, industrial structures and levels of technology, and the economic reforms implemented in the two countries were also similar, although Ukraine was reckoned to lag behind Russia in many areas. The main difference between them is Russia’s far greater resource wealth. It follows that differences in industrial development since 1991 may to some degree be attributable to differences in initial natural resource endowments. In short, Ukraine could provide a rough approximation of how a resource-poor Russia might have developed over the transition.
Recent research at OECD provides new evidence that customs and administrative procedures have substantial effects on trade flows. Although customs and administrative procedures are necessary for the smooth application of trade and other policies, they can ?thicken? the borders between trading partners if the customs and administrative procedures are more stringent than necessary or...
This paper presents composite indicators of the institutional and policy characteristics of educational systems, collated from the questionnaire responses of 26 Member countries. These indicators provide an overview of the institutional framework in the primary and secondary education sector and are constructed so as to be used for the analysis of international differences in spending efficiency. The key features of the institutional setting in the non-tertiary education sector are grouped under three headings: i) the ability to prioritise and allocate resources efficiently (through decentralisation and mechanisms matching resources to specific needs); ii) the efficiency in managing spending at the local level (through outcome-focused policies and managerial autonomy), and iii) the efficiency in service provision (through benchmarking and user choice). For each country, an intermediate indicator is computed for each of these six institutional properties. Composite indicators then combine the six intermediate indicators of spending efficiency into a single, aggregate measure. Results are presented and some of their implications are discussed. Overall, the characteristics of the institutional framework in the non-tertiary public education sector seem to be very favourable, compared to OECD average, in the United Kingdom, Australia, Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands, whereas results are less favourable for the Czech Republic, Greece, Luxembourg, Japan, Turkey, Hungary, Belgium (French speaking community), Switzerland and Austria.
International comparisons of minimum-wage levels have largely focused on the gross value of minimum wages, ignoring the effects of taxation on both labour costs and the net income of employees. This paper presents estimates of the tax burdens facing minimum-wage workers. These are used as a basis for cross-country comparisons of the net earnings of these workers as well as the cost of employing them. In addition, results show the evolution of net incomes and labour costs during the 2000-2005 period and the relative importance of minimum-wage adjustments and...
Poor countries are and will remain for some time vulnerable to external shocks, whether to export prices or from natural disasters. The lowest-income countries have a higher incidence of shocks than other developing countries and tend to suffer larger damages when shocks occur. For the poorest countries, the average number of disasters between 1997 and 2001 has been one every 2.5 years. Commodity price shocks are also more severe for poor countries. Low-income countries experience this type of shock on average every 3.3 years. About 26 highly-indebted countries have an export concentration of more than 50 per cent in three or fewer commodities, while 62 per cent of the total exports of the least developed countries are unprocessed primary commodities. Exogenous shocks on commodity prices have significant direct adverse effects on growth and the multiplier effects of negative terms of trade shocks can also be large. Collier and Sewn (2001) show, for a sample of cases where the direct income loss averaged 6.8 per cent of GDP, the total correlated loss of income amounted to about twice that much, to 14 per cent of GDP. Research shows that these negative shocks increase the incidence of poverty. The shocks also have a significant impact on fiscal and external balances. An IMF study shows that terms-of-trade shocks and adverse weather conditions have played an important role in exacerbating debt problems3.
French
The current situation of the labour market integration of migrants in Germany has to be viewed in the light of its immigration history. During the post-war economic boom, until 1973, Germany focused on the recruitment of low-skilled foreign labour. Many of these “guestworker” immigrants settled and were joined by their foreign spouses, which has given rise to a second generation of persons with an immigrant background. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Germany received massive immigration flows of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Shortly after the peak immigration of ethnic Germans, Germany received large numbers of humanitarian migrants. German statistics only distinguish along nationality lines. This hampers assessment of the situation as this does not take account of ethnic Germans – who have German nationality and are now the most important immigrant group, although they face difficulties similar to those of other migrant groups. Assessment based on nationality is also problematic since immigrants with a foreign nationality have increasingly and selectively taken up German citizenship. There is a clear need for statistics based on the country of birth...
The consequences of an ageing workforce are magnified in the public sector because it generally has an older demographic profile than the private sector (OECD, 2006). The challenge of attracting and retaining capacity within the public service as large numbers of experienced public servants retire is set to be a growing concern in many OECD countries. This report looks at the degree to which pension reform may be assisting in meeting this challenge....
French
This Working Paper compiles a set of recent comparable OECD data on revenues, inputs, and public sector processes and proposes a way forward in data collection. It is the first of three annual Working Papers as the Public Governance and Territorial Development (GOV) Directorate of the OECD builds up to the first publication of a major biennial publication, “Government at a Glance”, in late 2009. It is accompanied by a volume entitled “Measuring Government Activities” (OECD, forthcoming) that sets out the proposed approach and that poses technical alternatives for expert review and comment. The first part of this volume provides a comprehensive exposition of the proposed data classification and analysis.
French
Bond financing has replaced bank loans and other sources of capital flows as a major source of funding for emerging markets. This shift has been particularly impressive in Latin America. Disentangling the dynamics of emerging bond markets and the information flow about them has attracted the attention of the OECD. Are decisions about bond market investments based on good and neutral information, or is something else driving investors’ choices?
French
Le présent document expose les premiers résultats d'un projet lancé en 2004 par l'OCDE en collaboration avec Eurostat et l'Institut de statistique de l'UNESCO, dont l'objectif était de mettre en place un système régulier et comparable à l'échelle internationale de production d'indicateurs de la carrière et de la mobilité des titulaires de doctorat. Un premier recueil de données a eu lieu en septembre 2005, dont les résultats concernant sept pays sont présentés ici. Ces données lèvent le voile sur les principales caractéristiques en termes de démographie, d'éducation, de marché du travail et de mobilité des titulaires de doctorat. Elles permettent en outre de mieux comprendre les questions liées..
English
This paper presents the first results of a project initiated in 2004 by the OECD in collaboration with Eurostat and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, and aimed at developing a regular and internationally comparable production system of indicators on the careers and mobility of doctorate holders. A first data collection was launched in September 2005, from which the results for seven countries are presented here. These data shed light on the main demographic, educational, labour market and mobility patterns of doctoral graduates. They also mark some progress in the understanding of both...
French

The most important strategic tasks of Hungarian economic policy are to complete the process of European integration, to build up the appropriate institutional and social capacities and to harmonise real and nominal convergence. This article discusses a theoretical framework for modernisation and how it could be adapted to the Hungarian public sector. Several action scenarios are discussed, but any reforms should aim to rethink the role of the state and improve competitiveness while maintaining social cohesion.

This review of the Hungarian budget process was carried out in May 2006. The review covers budget formulation, budget execution, parliamentary approval, accounting and auditing, and sub-national financing. Hungary has modernised its budget process over the last ten years, first as part of the pre-accession programme and then, since EU accession in 2004, in connection with the Convergence Programme 2005-08. Nevertheless, there remain some shortcomings which include the focus on the actual (non-cyclically adjusted) deficit, the focus on the budget year rather than the medium term, the lack of rules of budgetary discipline, and the lack of transparency concerning forecasts and outcomes. Hungary’s long-term growth record and general economic outlook are good, but institutional reform to correct these shortcomings is important for fiscal consolidation and macroeconomic stability.

Health professions are overseen by an array of rules and regulations that are justified by the need to protect consumers from unqualified practitioners. The most common method of ensuring practitioner quality is professional licensure. Because health care expertise is necessary to establish the appropriate program of study, training, and examination for new professionals, a licensed profession often directly or indirectly controls its own licensure rules. In this process of selfregulation, a profession exercises its legitimate interest in maintaining the quality of its members. But a self-regulating profession also has the potential to abuse its control over who can practice and how they practice in order to enhance member income.

French

Les professions de santé sont régies par un ensemble de règles et réglementations qui sont justifiées par la nécessité de protéger les consommateurs de praticiens non qualifiés. La manière la plus courante de garantir la qualité du praticien est la qualification professionnelle. Parce que l’expertise en matière de soins est nécessaire, pour établir un programme adéquat d’étude, de formation et d’examen pour les nouveaux praticiens, une profession qualifiée requiert souvent directement ou indirectement des contrôles de ses propres règles de qualification. Dans ce processus d’autorégulation, une profession exerce son intérêt légitime en veillant à la qualité de ses membres. Mais une profession autoréglementée peut aussi être tentée d’abuser de son contrôle s’agissant de qui peut pratiquer et comment, pour améliorer le revenu de ses membres. Un certain nombre d’études ont montré que des pratiques restrictives accroissent les coûts. Par exemple, limiter la publicité et interdire la détention des entreprises conduit à des prix pour les examens ophtalmiques et les lunettes qui sont supérieurs de 33.6 %, à qualité moyenne égale d’une région à forte restriction à une région à faible restriction. Une politique d’évaluation des restrictions et d’élimination de celles qui sont néfastes peut procurer des gains significatifs aux consommateurs et pourrait permettre de réduire les dépenses de santé sans réduire significativement la qualité des soins.

English

En raison d’un pourcentage élevé du revenu et du budget national affectés aux services hospitaliers et de la nécessité évidente de les améliorer, des mécanismes concurrentiels renforcés ont été mis en place dans un certain nombre de pays de l’OCDE pour améliorer l’efficience des prestations hospitalières. Les services hospitaliers comportent un ensemble complexe de produits et de services destinés aux patients, qui ne sont pas tous soumis de la même manière à la concurrence. Certains services comme les services d’urgence sont peu, voire pas du tout, soumis à la concurrence. D’autres comme la chirurgie qui peut être programmée, peuvent être soumis à la concurrence d’autres services offrant un service comparable. D’autres encore, comme les services de diagnostic, les consultations de spécialistes et les services de consultations externes peuvent être en concurrence avec les centres de diagnostic, les cabinets de médecins et les centres de chirurgie ambulatoire.

English

Ce rapport sur le droit et la politique de la concurrence du Mexique qui a servi de fondement à l’examen par les pairs en 2004 fait suite à l’évaluation de l’OCDE de 1998. La Commission mexicaine de la concurrence (CMC) est maintenant une autorité parvenue à maturité et respectée. Cependant, le soutien que recueille en général la politique de la concurrence au Mexique demeure problématique. La CMC a connu des difficultés avec les tribunaux, et ses ressources ont décliné en dépit d’une charge de travail accrue. Le rapport de 2004 et l’examen par les pairs ont recommandé un certain nombre de changements tant dans le mode opératoire que dans la législation pour rendre plus efficace l’application de la loi ainsi que les actions de plaidoyer. En 2006, le Mexique a révisé sa loi pour y incorporer beaucoup de ces recommandations, telles que le renforcement des pouvoirs d’enquête dans le cas d’inspections in situ, l’alourdissement des sanctions (y compris la faculté d’ordonner des désinvestissements d’actifs dans le cas de violations sérieuses et répétées), et soumettant les nominations à la CMC à l’approbation du Sénat. En réponse à la décision d’inconstitutionnalité prise par les tribunaux à propos de la mise en oeuvre de la loi précédente, la loi révisée précise dans quels cas des pratiques telles que les prix prédateurs, l’exclusivité, les subventions croisées et la discrimination par les prix constituent des violations de la loi. Le système de notification des fusions a été simplifié. Les amendements ont également renforcé le rôle de la CMC s’agissant de la défense de la concurrence et des avis qu’elle donne dans le cadre de l’élaboration de la loi, de la réglementation et à l’égard d’autres échelons gouvernementaux.

English

Because of the high percentage of national income and government budget typically associated with the provision of hospital services and because there is substantial evidence of hospital services could often be delivered more efficiently than they are, a number of OECD countries have increased the extent to which competitive mechanisms are adopted to increase the efficiency of hospital care delivery. Hospital services are complex set of products and services than comprise many different types of patient-oriented activities and not all services are equally subject to competition. For some services, such as emergency services, a hospital may have few if any competitors. For other services, such as inpatient scheduled surgeries, a hospital may compete for patients with other hospitals that offer comparable care. For still other services, such as diagnostic services, specialist consultations and outpatient services hospitals may at times compete with diagnostic centers, doctors’ offices and ambulatory surgery centers. Competition between providers of hospital services can have a number of impacts, including reducing excessive hospital stays, reducing costs of providing care and improving quality of care. Mechanisms for increasing competition or market forces identified in this paper include: collecting and distributing improved information on provider performance; supporting new entry when entry and exit costs are low; encouraging independent or private operation of facilities; improving allocation of human resources, particularly through reducing anticompetitive restrictions by professionals; introducing prospective pricing in combination with benchmarking; physician-led purchasing; providing for greater consumer choice, particularly when waiting lists are long; introducing contestable management of hospitals; and applying competition law in circumstances where public policy focuses on pro-competitive mechanisms. A competitive mechanism that might work in one system will not necessarily transfer well to another. Moreover, competitive mechanisms may at times increase costs. As health policy makers increase reliance on competitive mechanisms, they may need to think carefully about structural market conditions and potentially involve competition authorities when it appears that participants in the market are acting to restrain or eliminate competition.

French

This report on Mexico’s competition law and policy, which was the foundation for a peer review examination in early 2004, is a follow-up to a 1998 OECD assessment. Mexico’s competition commission (“CFC”) has become a mature and well-respected agency; however, the degree of general support for competition policy in Mexico remains an open question. The CFC has encountered problems in the courts, and its resources have declined despite an increasing workload. The 2004 report and peer review recommended a number of changes in operations and law to make enforcement and advocacy more effective. In 2006, Mexico revised its basic competition law to incorporate many of these recommendations, such as strengthening investigative powers for onsite inspections, increasing sanctions (including the possibility of orders to divest assets in case of serious, repeat violations) and providing for Senate approval of appointments to the CFC. In response to court rulings that some applications of the previous law were unconstitutional, the revised law now specifies when practices such as predatory pricing, exclusive dealing, cross subsidization and price discrimination would be violations. The merger notification system has been simplified. The amendments have also strengthened the CFC’s roles and powers of advocacy and policy advice in dealing with legislation, regulatory proceedings and other levels of government.

French
Ce rapport sur le développement de politiques pour la protection des infrastructures d'information critiques au Canada, en Corée, au Royaume-Uni et aux États-Unis a été préparé sous la supervision du Secrétariat par Nick Mansfield, consultant à l'OCDE, basé sur des données communiquées par les pays volontaires.
English
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