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In recent years, academics and policy makers have emphasised the role of human capital formation in economic development. By creating human capital, countries become more attractive to private investment, both domestic and foreign. And through such investment, countries grow and prosper.

Yet the empirical evidence in support of this theory remains elusive. While foreign direct investment (FDI) has multiplied in many countries around the world since the 1980s, its effects on growth are uncertain. Why is that the case?

In this paper I argue that political economy pathways exist that may lead countries away from sustained growth. In countries that lack well-developed capital and education markets, many otherwise qualified citizens may be denied the basic skills they need in order to contribute fully to the nation’s economic development. As societies become divided, they become more conflicted, and this conflict dampens growth, irrespective of the level of foreign direct investment ...

The development of broadband Internet access, has triggered a shift in voice traffic from traditional public switched telephone networks (PSTN) to alternative Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
France devotes a great deal of resources to vocational training for youths and especially adults, but the system is unduly complex and yields rather poor returns. The basic literacy and numeracy skills of many French adults remain weak in international comparison, with harmful effects on employment opportunities, wages and well-being. Access to basic skills training is poor for those who need it most, many of whom come from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. Secondary vocational education and apprenticeship training still suffer from a serious image problem in the minds of French families, even though the latter have a good track record. The government has succeeded in ensuring that the number of apprenticeships is growing, but that is mostly due to those studying at the tertiary level or at least for a higher secondary diploma. The labour market outcomes of those with only shorter vocational qualifications are not good, and quality in that stream needs to improve. To do so better teachers and workplace trainers need to be attracted to the field, especially individuals who can better link practical experience and theoretical concepts. The financing of the adult training system involves complex collection mechanisms even following a major recent overhaul. Making further changes will have to confront entrenched interests, even if the use of the training levy to finance business groups and unions has now ended. The goal is to direct more training funds to workers in small firms who have the weakest skills as well as to jobseekers, but this might be more easily achieved by shifting the funding base from a levy on employers to fiscal incentives or direct subsidies. There remains a need to align responsibilities for adult training with corresponding control over funds. Workers are henceforth to be given personal training accounts in which they can accumulate rights to up to 150 hours of training. But the enormous number of providers and courses on offer calls for greater efforts to develop good guidance, evaluation and certification systems to ensure the training finally chosen is appropriate and of sufficiently high quality.
French
In this paper, we aim to examine how voluntary carbon markets can provide a valuable contribution to strengthening domestic and international climate policies. Voluntary markets are defined as small and unregulated segments of an established carbon market that are driven by voluntary offsetting of GHG emissions.
While public regulation in food and agriculture is attracting attention at both policy and research level for their potential implications on international food trade, policy implications of agricultural standards – understood to be legally not mandatory and hence voluntary – are much less well understood. Yet, environmental and organic standards have grown in importance in agriculture and agri-food chains, making also their potential trade effects more relevant. In this context, understanding the linkages between governments and standards has become a key element in the debate. This report analyses possible roles of public authorities in the area of environmental and organic standards, including policy objectives, options for interaction and means for the use of standards for achieving public policy goals. It identifies the main objectives behind government activity on environmental and organic standards in the area of consumer protection and fraud prevention, the enabling of functioning food markets and the improvement of efficiency in the design, implementation and monitoring of public policies. Countries have taken very different approaches towards dealing with standards on organic agriculture which frequently, though not always, are seen as a subset of environment-related standards. Choices for organic standards range between market self-regulation and the development of government-owned public standards. More generally, the level of public intervention often reflects OECD governments’ perception on the environmental benefits of organic agriculture itself.

This paper is concerned with a number of conceptual and practical issues associated with the use of vouchers to distribute public services. Section 1 proposes a definition of vouchers and considers the position which voucher distribution occupies in the spectrum of possible mechanisms for the production and distribution of public services; this leads into a discussion of the objectives which voucher distribution might promote. Section 2 classifies the contexts in which vouchers might be applied and types of voucher systems. This permits a preliminary mapping of combinations of policy objectives and characteristics of the public service in question onto alternative forms of voucher distribution. Section 3 provides an illustrative review of the use of vouchers in the distribution of public services. Many of the examples discussed are in the field of education, where discussion of or use of vouchers is most developed, but experience of other public services is included where it is available. Section 4 contains conclusions.

French

Semiconductors are a critical input into a wide range of downstream industries, including the wider information communications technology industry, electronics and motor vehicles. Semiconductor shortages can have large adverse effects on output in these industries, with ripple effects on the broader economy, as highlighted by recent supply chain disruptions. This paper maps cross-country and cross-sectoral dependencies in the semiconductor value chain based on new OECD Inter-Country Input-Output data that allow to analyse the semiconductor industry separately from the wider computer and electronics value chain. It further discusses policy options to reduce the economic consequences of shocks to the semiconductor value chain while preserving the benefits of global sourcing.

Social institutions face many challenges. The recent economic crisis has provided a stress test as it has left a legacy of high unemployment and high government debt in many countries. It also lowered potential output and thus the revenue base for social protection schemes. At the same time, ageing and other secular trends raise long-term sustainability issues. The design of social institutions determines their capacity to deal with shocks and trend changes and the way risks are shared between the institutions and their stakeholders. They also circumscribe the scope for automatic or discretionary adjustments, when trade-offs between sustainability, adequacy and efficiency arise. This report examines the sustainability of social institutions and their ability to absorb and cope with short-term shocks and longer-term trends by providing risk sharing and expenditure smoothing, focusing on pension, health care and unemployment insurance schemes.
The recent economic crisis has provided a stress test for the vulnerability of social institutions. This paper assesses the vulnerability of social institutions in light of the current crisis, and surveys past episodes, when social institutions faced similar challenges. Public pay-as-you-go pension systems have generally weathered the crisis well, but private pension funds were severely affected by the financial crisis. While health care spending drifted up further in the early part of the crisis, it levelled off in 2010 and 2011, on average in the OECD, for an unprecedented two years with no spending growth. But, in countries hard hit by the crisis public outlays on health care declined considerably. Unemployment insurance expenditure increased during the crisis in most OECD countries. In some countries, spending rose considerably more than the number of unemployed, reflecting an extension or more generous benefits, while in others the increase was considerably smaller, pointing to adequacy problems of those unemployment insurance schemes. Five country case studies focusing on how social institutions absorbed shocks in the more distant past are also examined and lessons are drawn from these experiences.
  • 31 Aug 2023
  • OECD, European Commission
  • Pages: 38

Dieses Kurzdossier über die Verbesserung der Wirksamkeit von Schulungsprogrammen für inklusives und soziales Unternehmertum wurde von der OECD und der Europäischen Kommission erstellt. Darin wird die Bedeutung der Schulungsprogramme erörtert und ein Überblick über die verschiedenen verfügbaren Schulungsprogramme gegeben. Ferner wird untersucht, welche Möglichkeiten den Regierungen zur Verfügung stehen, um diese Schulungsprogramme zu stärken, und es werden Orientierungshilfen für die Konzeption wirksamerer Schulungsprogramme für inklusives und soziales Unternehmertum gegeben.

French, English
  • 25 Aug 2023
  • OECD
  • Pages: 45

Este documento explora a função dos vales sociais como um instrumento de inclusão social e desenvolvimento local. Apresenta uma tipologia dos vales e dos respetivos objetivos, que regem os quadros institucionais e regulamentares, a utilização pelos governos nacionais e locais e a economia social (secção 1). Analisa os desafios e as oportunidades para o desenvolvimento de vales à luz da crise da COVID-19 e sugere recomendações para tirar partido de forma mais eficaz dos vales sociais como um instrumento para "reconstruir melhor" (seção 2). Por último, ilustra e analisa casos específicos na Bélgica, Brasil, Chéquia, França, México, Marrocos e Roménia (seção 3).

English, Spanish
  • 30 Jun 2023
  • OECD
  • Pages: 74

Dieser Bericht befasst sich mit wissenschaftlichen Laufbahnen und nimmt dabei insbesondere das „Wissenschaftsprekariat“ in den Blick: Postdokto-rand*innen mit befristeten Verträgen, die keine Aussicht auf Festanstellung oder Weiterbeschäftigung haben. Es werden Maßnahmen und Praktiken aufgezeigt, um die Lebensqualität von Wissenschaftler*innen zu erhöhen, diversere, gerechtere und inklusivere Wissenschaftssysteme zu schaffen, die besten wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchskräfte anzuwerben und zu halten und damit letztlich die Qualität der Forschung zu verbessern.

Der Bericht bietet einen konzeptuellen Rahmen und einen Überblick über die verfügbaren Daten und Informationen zu Politikmaßnahmen. Er stützt sich auf eine in OECD-Ländern durchgeführte Erhebung, bestehend aus Ländernotizen und Interviews mit Politikverantwortlichen, Mittelgeber*innen, Vertreter*innen von Forschungseinrichtungen sowie Wissenschaftler*innen. Der Bericht präsentiert Empfehlungen und eine Reihe von Politikoptionen für die Verbesserung der Arbeitsbedingungen und beruflichen Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten, eine stärkere Verknüpfung von Mittelvergabe und Personalpolitik, inklusivere Governance-Strukturen, die Förderung von Chancengleichheit und Diversität, ein besseres Personalmanagement, mehr intersektorale und internationale Mobilität sowie eine breitere Evidenzbasis zu wissenschaftlichen Laufbahnen.

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