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This paper explores food supply chain resilience and its connection to resilience of food systems more broadly. In terms of availability and affordability, food supply chains have been resilient to a wide range of shocks. Trade plays an important risk pooling role in allowing countries to draw on international markets in the face of domestic shocks. Some domestic policies have helped absorb supply chain shocks, for example support to low-income households or the removal of supply chain bottlenecks. Other measures like export restrictions exacerbate instability. The concept of food systems resilience goes further than availability and affordability of food. It includes broader objectives (like livelihoods and environmental sustainability), and must also anticipate a broader range of shocks, as well as the pressures generated by food systems themselves on the environment. Policy makers should therefore take a more complete systems-wide view of resilience.

The frequency and severity of extreme wildfires are on the rise in Portugal, causing unprecedented disruption and increasingly challenging the country’s capacity to contain losses and damages. These challenges are set to keep growing in the context of climate change, highlighting the need to scale up wildfire prevention and climate change adaptation. This paper provides an overview of Portugal’s wildfire policies and practices and assesses the extent to which wildfire management in the country is evolving to adapt to growing wildfire risk under climate change.

This policy brief was prepared as part of the OECD's Resourcing Higher Education Project. This wider project aims to provide a shared knowledge base for OECD member and partner countries on policy for higher education resourcing, drawing on system-specific and comparative policy analysis. The policy brief for Finland was developed at the request of the Finnish authorities to support reflection on possible adjustments to the public funding model for Finnish higher education for the funding period (2025-28). The brief reviews the key challenges facing higher education in Finland and national policy priorities, compares Finland’s model of funding higher education institutions (HEIs) with models in OECD systems sharing similar characteristics to Finland’s and reviews policy options – both within and outside of the funding model – to support achievement of key policy objectives.

This report provides an overview of the policies and procedures for addressing child sexual exploitation and abuse (CSEA) material across the global top-50 online content-sharing services. It finds that only 10 of the 50 services define CSEA with sufficient detail to understand what is prohibited on their services, and only 20 of the services issue a transparency report on CSEA. Even among those services, there are significant variations in what behaviour is captured in their definitions, and the metrics, methodology and frequency of transparency reports differ across platforms. While good practices exist, the report reveals a fragmented response to this complex and evolving problem, which limits comparability and makes it challenging to conduct a thorough assessment of the overall impact of platforms’ efforts to combat CSEA.

This working paper presents novel analysis comparing in a consistent way the tax treatment of labour and capital income across OECD countries, through stylised effective tax rates (ETRs). It shows that dividend income and capital gains are generally subject to lower ETRs than wage income at the personal level. In many countries, capital income is also tax-favoured even when considering taxes paid by both firms and individuals, although the gap between labour and capital income taxation tends to be smaller than when considering only personal-level taxes. The gap between ETRs on labour and capital income varies between countries and grows with income levels in some. The paper highlights that differential tax treatment of labour and capital income can affect the efficiency and equity of tax systems.

This report explores how traffic systems and infrastructure can be redesigned and expanded for a broader range of vehicle types, especially “smaller-than-car” or light mobility options. It identifies the potential benefits of making vehicles lighter and diversifying the range of vehicles used for everyday mobility. It also highlights successful policies for encouraging a shift towards urban light mobility in cities. Finally, it presents strategies for implementing frameworks for such policies and highlights measures decision makers should consider as part of their light mobility strategy.

This paper quantifies changes in employment and the demand for skills in the European Union following the implementation of Fit for 55 policies. Between 2019 and 2030, the economy is projected to grow by 1.3% in the Fit for 55 scenario (3% in a Baseline scenario without the Fit for 55 policies). Employment growth is projected to be lower in the Fit for 55 than the Baseline scenario. Employment in the Fit for 55 scenario is projected to decrease by 3% for blue collar and farm workers (2% in the Baseline) and increase by 4 5% for other occupations (5-6% in the Baseline). The most demanded skills following the implementation of Fit for 55 will be those related to inter personal communication and the use of digital technologies, whereas the demand for skills related to the use of traditional tools and technologies is projected to decline. Anticipating changes in employment and the demand for skills as well as the socio-demographic profile of those most affected can facilitate the design of upskilling and reskilling efforts and promote the reallocation of workers across sectors and occupations.

This paper investigates two closely related questions concerning the responses of Multi-National Enterprise (MNE) investment to corporate income taxation using a panel of unconsolidated subsidiary-level and consolidated group-level data from the ORBIS database. First, the paper provides new evidence on the heterogeneity of investment responses to taxation across multinational firms. This paper finds that profit shifting opportunities, access to credit, and market power at the group level are associated with decreased investment sensitivity to taxation among MNE subsidiaries. Second, a new empirical approach is used to investigate how tax changes at the host jurisdiction level affect investment at the MNE group level and whether there are propagation effects to foreign subsidiaries within the same MNE group. This paper finds that taxation in one jurisdiction in which an MNE is active is positively associated with investment in its subsidiaries in other jurisdictions. This finding suggests that the well-document negative relationship between taxation and MNE investment within a host jurisdiction masks the MNE rebalancing the location of its investment to other host jurisdictions in response to changes in cross-jurisdictional tax rate differentials rather than purely decreasing its investment globally.

Governments are increasingly utilising research and innovation (R&I) policy to foster economic and societal change. Yet, the empirical correlation between these policies and socio-technical transformations remains under-explored. The report investigates this relationship by comparing the Recovery and Resilience Plans (RRPs) of Austria, Finland and Sweden, initiated under the NextGenerationEU framework post Covid-19. The report finds significant disparities in the content, process and transformative value of the RRPs among these countries. The differences in the content of the national RRPs, and the ability and willingness to seize the opportunity presented by the RRPs to drive transformation, are explained by existing national policy contexts and frameworks. Surprisingly, the role of R&I policy in the RRPs is less important than expected, despite its emphasised importance in literature and political rhetoric. The report further identifies implications for a transformative innovation policy as well as areas for further research.

This paper investigates the potential role and contribution of carbon pricing in transforming emission pathways towards net zero GHG emissions. It reviews carbon pricing’s impacts, overall and in the electricity sector in selected jurisdictions to date. The paper also analyses the current and potential application of emissions pricing (e.g. emissions trading schemes or carbon taxes) in food systems. The analysis finds that carbon pricing could contribute to net zero pathways alongside other policies, yet price levels and coverage to date have been too low to reduce emissions in line with the Paris Agreement’s goals. Carbon pricing’s contribution to net zero pathways could be further strengthened, including by incentivising demand-side shifts, sequencing policies and enhancing international carbon pricing collaboration. Applying emissions pricing in food systems faces significant short-term technical, methodological, and political barriers and could have just transition implications but reducing emissions from food systems could also lead to many co-benefits.

… more and more governments, as well as regional and international organisations, are focusing greater attention on nuclear energy’s potential role in combating global climate change. At the same time, the nuclear energy sector is facing many complex issues, with legal systems playing an increasingly vital role in adjudicating public policy and regulatory questions, particularly in countries with long-established nuclear power programmes

Organising transport of nuclear substances presents a number of challenges, including how to properly qualify the substances from a nuclear liability perspective. The nuclear liability conventions provide a generic definition of “nuclear substances” (referred to as “nuclear material” under certain conventions), which gives wide discretion to national legislation in its interpretation. Moreover, the nuclear liability conventions also exclude certain categories of nuclear substances, subject to specific conditions being met, to ensure that the risk associated with their transport may be dealt with under general tort law. The implementation or application of these exclusions is carried out by each concerned country in accordance with its domestic legislation, which may lead to discrepancies in the qualification of substances to be transported by different stakeholders.

Before the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident in Japan in 2011, the nuclear industry had strongly promoted the idea that the time of nuclear renaissance had come after a long, fallow period in the wake of the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island (1979) and Chernobyl (1986). During the post-Fukushima period, there were few new projects, but growing demand for energy and anxieties raised by climate change have brought us to a turning point. Despite the Fukushima accident, which led to some nuclear projects being delayed or cancelled, there is still a great deal of interest in the use of nuclear power for civil purposes. This is primarily because, as the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Executive Director Fatih Birol has rightly pointed out: “Without an important contribution from nuclear power, the global energy transition will be that much harder.”1 In this regard, in 2010, 67 reactors were under construction, 120 planned and 441 in operation.2 In 2022, 11 years after the Fukushima Daiichi accident, there were 60 under construction, 104 planned and 338 proposed.3 The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) estimates that nuclear electric power capacity will have increased by as much as 23% by 2030 and more than doubled by 2050.4 In addition to this renewed interest, many projects are now in development, opening up new prospects for the use of the atom for civil purposes. Nuclear fusion, small modular reactors (SMRs), the use of artificial intelligence, floating, underwater and space reactors, and nuclear batteries, to name but a few of the projects on the table, lead us to think that the “nuclear renaissance” is slowly shifting to a “nuclear spring”. In this view, where the concept of a renaissance involves new impetus for nuclear energy, with the construction of new facilities, the concept of “spring” refers to a determination to break with nuclear traditions, in terms of concepts, means and players. Consequently, this phenomenon calls for new legal rules which, in some cases, have already started to be debated.