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• Biotechnology offers the potential for more environmentally-friendly agriculture but the conditions for developing countries to take advantage of that potential should be created. • Policy intervention is needed to ensure that biotechnology responds to the priorities set for agriculture. • Decisions are urgently needed in two policy areas specific to biotechnology: biosafety and intellectual property rights. • Public funding restrictions demand innovative approaches and public/private partnerships. • Flexibility and long-term commitment are essential if donor-supported biotechnology initiatives are to succeed.

This document reflects recent efforts made by the OECD to obtain an accurate assessment of the current state of biotechnology statistics in OECD member and observer countries. It is an update of the original document, which was released in 2000.

The inventory was prepared by Brigitte van Beuzekom of the OECD’s Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry, and benefited from contributions of the delegates involved in the OECD Ad hoc Meeting on Biotechnology Statistics. Comments are welcome and should be sent by e-mail to Brigitte van Beuzekom [e-mail: [email protected]] ...

This document reflects recent efforts made by the OECD to obtain an accurate assessment of the current state of biotechnology statistics in OECD Member and Observer countries.

This project was realised thanks in large part to a voluntary contribution provided by the Government of Canada. The Compendium was prepared by Brigitte van Beuzekom of the OECD’s Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry. In addition, this Compendium benefited from the contribution of Anthony Arundel of MERIT, who served as an outside reviewer during the preparation of the Compendium and from delegates involved in the OECD ad hoc Meeting on Biotechnology Statistics. Thanks to Sandrine Kergroach-Connan for her help in the preparation of the Trade and Venture Capital sections.

Comments are welcome and should be sent to Brigitte van Beuzekom, c/o OECD/DSTI OECD, 2 rue André-Pascal, 75775 Paris, Cedex 16, France ...

This document reflects recent efforts made by the OECD to obtain an accurate assessment of the current state of biotechnology statistics in OECD Member and Observer countries. The authors are grateful to Statistics Canada for the funding that made this project possible.

The inventory was prepared by Brigitte van Beuzekom of the OECD’s Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry, and benefited from contributions from Bill Pattinson of the OECD Secretariat and delegates involved in the OECD Ad hoc Meeting on Biotechnology Statistics. This version of the inventory is provisional and subject to revisions; it is also available on Internet at http://www.oecd.org/s_t/biotech/stats/biotech_inventory.htm. Revisions will be posted on the Internet as they become available. Comments are welcome and should be sent by e-mail to Brigitte van Beuzekom [e-mail: [email protected]] ...

After rice, maize is the second most important staple food in Indonesia, and is cultivated under a diversity of agro-ecological conditions. While food accounts for more than half total maize utilisation, demand for maize as livestock feed - particularly for poultry - has been growing rapidly in recent years. The Indonesian Development Plan sets production targets for maize for different regions, according to different technological "packages" in terms of the type of seed used and level of other inputs. Although the recommended technology packages imply wider diffusion of improved seed, only a small share of the total area cultivated is sown to hybrids and the commercial seeds industry is only just emerging.

Unlike rice and soybean, maize is not a major focus of policy intervention. Nevertheless, farm revenue in maize production has been increasing despite growing production costs per hectare. Given the high price of hybrids compared to open-pollinated varieties so far obtained ...

Maize is a relatively new crop in Thailand, but since commercial production began in the 1950s it has become the second most important crop in terms of planted area and one of the country's top four agricultural exports. Major changes are occurring in the maize market in Thailand. On the supply side, increased production through land expansion will be curtailed in the future to prevent further destruction of forest areas and the area under cultivation actually reduced. On the demand side, until recently most maize was exported, but the rapid increase in domestic demand for livestock feed brings the future of exports into question. Higher yields could be achieved with current maize varieties through the increased application of fertilizer. However, not only is fertilizer expensive (the price of nitrogen is about six times the price of maize): there are also risks involved in applying fertilizer in Thailand's mainly rain-fed production conditions.

Public sector maize research in ...

Maize has been a staple food in Mexico since pre-Hispanic times and is still an important source of calories and protein in daily consumption, especially for poor families. The pattern of consumption is nevertheless changing; with the share of food consumption declining and feed utilisation expanding. The agro-climatic conditions of production are highly diverse, with wide ranges in yields and rainfed areas accounting for the major share of total maize area and of total production. Mexico has become an important importer of both maize grain and seed. Reduction of these high levels of grain imports and growth in domestic production are priority policy objectives.

Improved seeds are sown in only one-fifth of the total area cultivated, but half the irrigated area. Despite the wide genetic variability of maize in Mexico only five improved varieties accounted for almost half the improved seed used during the spring/summer growing season. There is a pressing need in Mexico for a wider ...

With annual production averaging over 20 million metric tons, Brazil is the second largest developing country producer of maize (after China) and the third largest in the world. This report analyses development and dissemination of maize research and technology in Brazil from a socio-economic and politico-institutional perspective. It concentrates therefore on agents and factors which influence development of research and its productive application.

The report is in two parts. First it describes the role of maize in the Brazilian economy - the main characteristics of its production, marketing and consumption, together with relevant sectoral policies and regulation of seed production. Then it analyses the development of maize research and technology in Brazil, identifying the main agents involved and possible future developments in the light of the introduction of biotechnologies.

As an Appendix, the authors review development of biotechnologies in Brazil.

Many people have ...

This case study of Mexico examines developments in agricultural biotechnology against the background of recent changes in macro-economic, environmental and agricultural policies as well as in the regulation of the seeds industry, intellectual property protection and biosafety. It also identifies incentives and constraints at the different phases of research, technology development and diffusion of biotechnology in agriculture.

The study suggests that, under current conditions, biotechnology is likely to benefit only those producers already taking advantage of relatively complex technological packages and to bypass small farmers and peasants. It concludes with recommendations for the establishment of a biotechnology policy for the agriculture sector.

India's self-sufficiency in food production has been achieved by the adoption of chemicals-intensive farming methods which have contributed to serious deterioration of the environment. New evironmentally-friendly technologies, which maintain (or increase) current levels of productivity, are needed if the use of chemical inputs is to be reduced. This study examines the development and diffusion of biotechnologies in India, with respect to both products derived from conventional biological methods and those using the more advanced techniques of molecular biology.

Thus far, the contribution of available biofertilisers and biopesticides to reduced use of agro-chemicals is marginal, due to the vicious circle created by problems of supply as well as demand. By and large, biofertilisers and biopesticides are being produced on a small scale, using inefficient technologies. Inconsistent quality and poor performance thus combine to limit demand and their acceptance by farmers which, in ...

This case study of Zimbabwe has examined developments in biotechnology against the background of a welldeveloped national agricultural research, plant breeding and seeds system. It has then assessed the constraints to biotechnology research, technology development and diffusion in the light of the resources available and the technology transfer mechanisms in place for different groups of farmers.

The study concludes that, in the case of Zimbabwe's large-scale commercial farmers, the transfer of biotechnology applications will be determined essentially by their economic advantage over techniques currently in use. In the case of the small-scale and communal areas farmers, it is unlikely that biotechnology innovations — particularly when delivered as seed — would be adopted unless special policy measures to address the problems of seeds supply, are taken ...

This study examines the potential impact of changes in the public/private sector balance for biotechnology development and diffusion in developing country agriculture. It focuses on biotechnology related to two important developing country crops: rice and cocoa.

The study highlights the differences in the ways in which research on the two crops is organised, at both national and international level, in the financial and scientific resources devoted to research and in the public and private actors involved. It stresses the need for government intervention in setting national research priorities and for innovative institutional arrangements — including public/private sector collaboration — in situations where public research funding has been reduced or is increasingly scarce ...

There are at least two policy regimes to be considered, one for environmental biotechnology, and another for industrial biotech. Environmental biotechnology is focused on biotechnologies for environmental clean-up, and much of the policy in this area is around compliance. Industrial biotechnology has quite different policy objectives and only started to grow as a field with the worldwide interest in biofuels. Much of the world now has targets for bioenergy and favourable policy regimes to stimulate production and use of biofuels, but sustainability is now a real issue for biofuels production. This should become an international theme as more countries start to adapt biofuels as part of their energy supply.

There is an urgent need to better understand the role that the use of blended finance in development co-operation can play in achieving the SDGs. By adopting the “Blended Finance Principles for Unlocking Commercial Finance for the SDGs” in 2017, members of the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee have committed to “monitor blended finance for transparency and results”. The practical implications of monitoring and evaluating blended finance are currently being explored with a view to providing further policy guidance on the implementation of such Principles. This paper contributes to the ongoing consultation process s by discussing governance and methodological challenges in blended finance evaluation and proposing a few options to deal with them.

In their review of the present practice of blended finance evaluation, as of end 2018, authors identify some key issues that need to be addressed and put forth initial ideas in order to ensure that evaluations improve the knowledge base on blended operations. The paper starts with a discussion of some key management and organizational challenges that influence how blending operations are monitored and evaluated. It continues with an overview of main evaluation methodologies that could be used for blended finance evaluation and challenges associated with applying them, and it outlines the challenges of assessing additionality. The paper concludes with a summary of identified issues from a review of a sample of completed evaluations of blended finance, highlighting the methodological challenges that they reveal.

The OECD Survey on Blended Finance Funds and Facilities represents a major step forward to consolidate evidence and provide further policy guidance in support of the OECD DAC Blended Finance Principles, whose focus is unlocking commercial finance for the Sustainable Development Goals.

This working paper presents findings from the 2018 survey edition relating to the management, capital structure, investment strategy and portfolio allocation of the surveyed blended finance funds and facilities. The quantitative analysis is complemented by the OECD statistics on private finance mobilised by official development interventions and by information provided by Convergence. It will be followed by another OECD Development Co-operation working paper discussing the development strategy, performance tracking and evaluation approach.

The 180 responses received illustrate to what extent blended finance funds and facilities vary widely in characteristics and functioning. Collectively, the managing organisations reported over USD 60.2 billion invested in 111 developing countries at the end of 2017. This new evidence confirms trends observed on the broader blended finance market (priority sectors, geographical coverage, targeted SDGs), while shedding light on additional aspects (e.g. investors, clients and investment instruments).

Initially launched in 2017, the OECD annual Blended finance Funds and Facilities Survey compiles and analyses information on collective investment vehicles, one of the primary channels for blended finance. In 2020, the third annual edition captured 198 vehicles, representing USD 75 billion assets under management. The survey helps policy makers and private sector actors better grasp the size and shape of a segment of the blended finance market. By bringing together data of different development actors that, collectively, are a significant contributor to sustainable finance, this survey makes an important contribution to enhancing understanding and transparency. Transparency is increased through the data collection and analysis, and understanding is increased through the aggregation of the data that highlight the main investments trends. The quantitative analysis is complemented by OECD statistics on private finance mobilised by official development interventions, as well as by information provided by other specialised institutions. This new evidence confirms trends observed on the broader blended finance market in terms of priority sectors, geographical coverage and the Sustainable Development Goals targeted. This year’s edition also explores additional aspects such as investors, clients and investment instruments, and has a particular focus on gender.

The development community agrees on the need to address conflict and fragility for global security and sustainable development. In such complex situations, programming should strive to include multiple actors at various levels of society. Although the use of private investment in fragile contexts has so far been low, the need to address the SDG funding gap makes innovative and more flexible financing methods worth considering. Official Development Aid remains critical, but blended finance can help enlarge the total resources available for development.

This paper analyses the OECD-DAC statistics on amounts mobilised from the private sector by official development finance interventions, from 2012 to 2017, against the multidimensional lens presented in the OECD 2018 States of Fragility Framework. The data shows a positive relationship between blending opportunities and economic, political and environmental security. The amounts of private finance mobilised increase, as a country’s economic, political and environmental fragility decreases. The way blended finance interplays with societal fragility and security remains unclear, as these two dimensions exert more complex influence on the trade-off between perceived risks and anticipated returns, which typically guides private investors.