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Los gobiernos en toda la OCDE están invirtiendo recursos importantes para hacer frente a los efectos inmediatos y a largo plazo de la pandemia de COVID-19. Dado que la crisis ha afectado de forma diferente a distintos grupos de edad, y muchos sentirán sus repercusiones durante las siguientes décadas, resulta crucial el adoptar un enfoque integral de gobernanza pública para dar respuesta y conducir los esfuerzos de recuperación de la COVID-19. Este informe presenta las perspectivas de una muestra no representativa de 151 organizaciones juveniles de 72 países, de las cuales 100 están situadas en 36 países de la OCDE, sobre cómo los jóvenes han vivido la crisis y las acciones gubernamentales relacionadas. El informe se complementa con un análisis de las medidas adoptadas por 34 países miembros de la OCDE y proporciona recomendaciones de cómo lograr una recuperación justa, inclusiva y resiliente para los jóvenes a través de diversos enfoques gubernamentales.
La recuperación tras la pandemia de COVID-19 provocará probablemente la reubicación de empleos entre sectores y ocupaciones y, con esto, la necesidad de proveer de asesoría y orientación profesional a los adultos en necesidad de mejorar o cambiar sus habilidades. La crisis también ha causado un cambio repentino en la manera de proporcionar orientación profesional, migrando de presencial a distancia. Este informe de política describe el impacto de la pandemia sobre la demanda y la prestación de orientación profesional; documenta los esfuerzos de los países para continuar proporcionando servicios de orientación profesional durante los confinamientos; y explora la futura necesidad de aumentar el alcance de la orientación profesional. Dada la importancia de la orientación profesional para mantener relevantes las habilidades de los trabajadores y mejorar la pertinencia entre la demanda y la oferta de habilidades, este informe también ofrece guía en políticas para mejorar su alcance, uso y calidad.
Long-term care facilities (LTCFs) provide care for extended periods to older people who frequently require antimicrobials to treat and prevent infection, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among older LTCF residents. Evidence indicates that, due to a combination of factors related to LTCF residents, prescribers and health care systems, up to 75% of antimicrobial prescriptions in LTCFs are inappropriate, in terms not only of the duration and choice of therapy, but also the need for therapy in the first place. Inappropriate use of antimicrobials is associated with the high rates of multi-drug resistant organisms that are recovered in LTCFs, and may exacerbate the threat of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), both in LTCFs and in the community. Yet, policies to tackle inappropriate antimicrobial use and AMR in LTCFs, such as antimicrobial stewardship and infection prevention and control (IPC), remain underused or suboptimal. Some countries are starting to act but they are a minority. Countries seeking to improve antimicrobial consumption, and minimise the threat of AMR, in LTCFs can: set up routine surveillance systems dedicated to collecting and reporting data on antimicrobial use and resistance in LTCFs; design, implement and enforce multifaceted antimicrobial stewardship programmes that comprehensively address multiple determinants of inappropriate antimicrobial prescribing and use; and adopt IPC programmes tailored to the specific needs and risks of LTCFs.
Global progress towards tackling climate change is lagging. This paper puts forward a framework to design comprehensive decarbonisation strategies while promoting growth and social inclusion. It first highlights the need of evaluating a country’s national climate targets and current policy mix, in conjunction with facilitating monitoring tools to assess current and future progress, as a key step to design effective decarbonisation strategies. It then provides a detailed comparison of several policy instruments across different assessment criteria, which indicates that no single instrument is clearly superior to all others. This highlights the need for developing decarbonisation strategies based on a wide policy mix consisting of three main components: 1) emission pricing policy instruments; 2) standards and regulations; 3) complementary policies to facilitate the reallocation of capital, labour and innovation towards low-carbon activities and to offset the adverse distributional effects of reducing emissions. However, there is no one-size-fits-all policy mix, as feasible policy choices depend on countries’ industrial structure, social preferences and political constraints. A robust and independent institutional framework, stakeholders engagement and credible communication campaigns are key to managing these constraints and ultimately enhancing public acceptance of climate mitigation policies.
A first step to implement effective migrant integration policies is to know who does what in policy sectors key to integration. Responding to this need, this paper offers policy makers a tool to understand the organisation of public action in key sectors for integration - Employment, Education, Housing, and Health/Welfare – in a sample of 10 OECD countries: Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden and the Netherlands.
The complexity of the division of powers among levels of government calls for coordination mechanisms between actors, whatever the level of decentralisation. Besides, it throws lights on subnational governments’ role in integrating migrants and enabling them to participate to local development for the benefits of all. The geographic differences that exist in migrant presence and outcomes mean countries should build on local authorities' knowledge of local realities, aptitudes to coordinate different policy fields at the relevant scale and cooperate with non-governmental organisations.
Trust between citizens and their governments is crucial for the legitimacy and functioning of democracies. This paper discusses the main determinants of people’s trust in public institutions and their measurement, in times of crisis as well as for a long-term, strong, inclusive and green recovery. It presents evidence on the great variation in the levels and drivers of trust across public institutions, across levels of government within countries, and among population groups. It also identifies three main trust challenges for public governance that were heightened by the COVID-19 crisis: i) people’s views on the credibility and effectiveness of government action on intergenerational and often global challenges; ii) the changes in political participation and political attitudes; and iii) an increasing distrust of and disengagement from democratic processes. Building on previous OECD work, and taking into account lessons from other crises and handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, the paper introduces a revised and expanded version of the OECD Framework on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions. Furthermore, it discusses how this Framework is applied in the OECD Trust Survey. Both the Framework and the Survey aim to provide governments with actionable evidence to build and maintain people’s trust as the basis for successful planning and policy reforms, allowing democracies to be fitter, stronger and more resilient in the future.
Recent years have seen impressive advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and this has stoked renewed concern about the impact of technological progress on the labour market, including on worker displacement.
This paper looks at the possible links between AI and employment in a cross-country context. It adapts the AI occupational impact measure developed by Felten, Raj and Seamans (2018[1]; 2019[2]) – an indicator measuring the degree to which occupations rely on abilities in which AI has made the most progress – and extends it to 23 OECD countries. The indicator, which allows for variations in AI exposure across occupations, as well as within occupations and across countries, is then matched to Labour Force Surveys, to analyse the relationship with employment.
Over the period 2012-2019, employment grew in nearly all occupations analysed. Overall, there appears to be no clear relationship between AI exposure and employment growth. However, in occupations where computer use is high, greater exposure to AI is linked to higher employment growth. The paper also finds suggestive evidence of a negative relationship between AI exposure and growth in average hours worked among occupations where computer use is low.
While further research is needed to identify the exact mechanisms driving these results, one possible explanation is that partial automation by AI increases productivity directly as well as by shifting the task composition of occupations towards higher value-added tasks. This increase in labour productivity and output counteracts the direct displacement effect of automation through AI for workers with good digital skills, who may find it easier to use AI effectively and shift to non-automatable, higher-value added tasks within their occupations. The opposite could be true for workers with poor digital skills, who may not be able to interact efficiently with AI and thus reap all potential benefits of the technology.
The second in a series of three papers on cross-border government innovation, this paper focuses on the use of innovative methods by governments to identify and share insights and experiment across borders. It looks at efforts to collect ideas and insights from the front lines to create and promote collective intelligence, as well as to experiment and test across borders. The papers offers findings based on hundreds of cases in countries as well as research and expertise, as well as lessons and recommendations for successful cross-border collaboration and innovation governance.
The first in a series of three reports on cross-border government innovation, this paper discusses at how governments are using new governance mechanisms to connect and collaborate in order to tackle issues that cut across borders between administrative entities or areas. Based on cases provided by countries as well as extensive research, it looks at cross-border governance bodies, networks for cross-border collaboration, and emerging governance system dynamics. It highlights progress made in collaboration and identifies lessons for successful cross-border innovation governance.
Although the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are not integrated explicitly into the main urban development plans of the city of Moscow, the local government has started using them as a checklist to assess the contribution of its sectoral programmes to sustainable development, as well as related strengths and weaknesses. Moscow presents very positive educational results, low unemployment rates and a strong innovation capacity, but challenges exist regarding sustainable consumption and production, affordable housing and air quality. The SDGs provide a framework to address these challenges in an integrated way and to contribute, in particular, to the sustainable transition of its industrial sector, which accounts for 16% of the city’s value added. The SDGs also allow to promote synergies across the three main urban development plans, catalyse needed investments in sustainability and enhance collaboration with the private sector.
This paper proposes a ranking of the countries where forest carbon sequestration is the most cost-efficient among 166 countries for which data are available. Taking into account the main cost factors leads to a more nuanced ranking of the countries to be favoured for cost-efficient forest carbon sequestration compared to the assumption that these would always be in tropical areas with high rainfall. The ranking reflects the differences in the opportunity cost of land use and labour cost (production costs), the quality of the business environment (transaction costs), natural conditions (forest productivity), wildfire risk and the avoided GHG emissions from alternative land use. Cost-efficiency also depends on the type of forest project (afforestation, reforestation or forest conservation) and how private (wood harvest) and non-private (environmental and social) co-benefits are counted. A sensitivity analysis is undertaken to examine the robustness of the results with respect to uncertainties in values of the cost and quantity factors of forest carbon sequestration. The results support the view that forests can be a cost-efficient way to offset GHG emissions and that significant cost reductions are possible by targeting the country and sub-national regions in which to locate forest carbon sequestration projects. The report also reviews the literature on the significance and cost of forest carbon sequestration and provides an overview of forest carbon offset schemes.
The present AOP describes the inhibition of calcineurin activity resulting in impaired T-Cell Dependent Antibody Response (TDAR). Calcineurin (CN), a protein phosphatase, is known to impair immune function when its phosphatase activation is inhibited. CN inhibitors (CNIs) inhibit CN phosphatase activity to suppress many kinds of immune functions and have been used in the medical domain to prevent hyper immune reactions. However, CNIs are reported to also induce immunosuppression-derived adverse effects such as increased frequency and/or severity of infections and increased tumor incidences. CNIs might affect several T-cell derived immune functions to induce compromised host. Among the affected immune functions, T-cell dependent antibody response (TDAR) is an important factor to resist infections and thought to be the useful endpoint on evaluating immunotoxicity of chemicals; therefore, this AOP describes the linkage between the inhibition of CN activity and impairment of TDAR.
The present AOP describes the prolonged activation of Cyp2E1 resulting in liver cancer. Cyp2E1 is a cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase that bioactivates over 85 substrates, thereby creating electrophilic metabolites and oxidative stress. Mono-oxygenation of these substrates to their reactive metabolites, and the accompanying oxidative stress produced during metabolism, pose health risks because they lead to hepatotoxicity and, often, to liver cancer.
The MIE occurs when Cyp2E1 binds a substrate. The Cyp2E1 catalytic cycle is prone to decoupling, which produces oxidative stress (KE1), and mono-oxidation of substrates produces reactive metabolites. Both reactive oxygen species and metabolites cause cytotoxicity (KE2). However, following injury, the liver is able to regenerate itself through an increase in cellular proliferation (KE3). Under conditions of chronic activation of Cyp2E1, excessive chronic increases in levels of reactive oxygen species and cell death, and subsequent dysregulated cellular proliferation, leads to tumour formation (AO).
The present AOP describes inhibition of histone deacetylase resulting in testicular atrophy. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDIs) are approved as anti-cancer drugs since HDIs have apoptotic effects in cancer cells. The intracellular mechanisms of induction of the spermatocyte apoptosis by HDIs are suggested as histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition as MIE, histone acetylation increase, disrupted cell cycle, apoptosis, and spermatocyte depletion as KEs. The adverse outcome has been defined as testicular atrophy. The HDIs inhibit deacetylation of the histone, leading to an increase in histone acetylation. The apoptosis induced by disrupted cell cycle leads to spermatocyte depletion and testis atrophy. Testicular toxicity is of interest for human health risk assessment especially in terms of reproductive and developmental toxicity, however, the testicular toxicity has not been fully elucidated. This AOP may be one of the pathways induced by HDIs, which suggests the pathway networks of protein hyperacetylations.
This case study explores whether the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can be used as a shared framework by all actors to manage development co‑operation for results in least developed countries, taking Uganda as a case study. The study offers an introduction to Uganda’s progress in mainstreaming the Goals in national policy making, as well as in monitoring the SDG targets and indicators. The report then focuses on the experiences of development co-operation partners in aligning their country-level programmes and frameworks with the SDG framework. It identifies enabling factors, drivers and obstacles that contribute to SDG alignment and monitoring in Uganda. The study concludes with recommendations for both the government and its development partners to increase the collective use of the SDGs as such a framework to improve policy coherence, effectiveness and sustainable impact of all development efforts.
Online platform use has grown remarkably in the last decade. Despite this, our understanding of its implications for economic outcomes is scarce and often limited to case studies and advanced countries. Using a newly built harmonised international dataset of online platforms and their use across 43 countries, covering the 2013-18 period and seven areas of activity, we contribute to filling this gap. Specifically, we investigate whether and under which market conditions platform uptake leads to changes in incumbent firms’ productivity. We find that platform use increases labour productivity growth in firms operating in the same sector, and that this takes place through increases in value added growth as opposed to decreases in employment. What is more, productivity gains are greater for small firms and firms in the middle of the productivity distribution, suggesting that online platforms can play an important role in levelling the playing field between SMEs and large companies and in narrowing productivity gaps among firms. Finally, productivity gains are stronger in more dynamic platform markets. Our findings offer insights on factors and policies that can be leveraged to encourage platform development in ways that are beneficial for the economy.
Viet Nam’s sustained economic development is driving increasing demand for electricity with generation capacity predicted to nearly double over the next decade. With the majority of economic hydropower resources utilised, delays in coal power pipelines, and increasing energy insecurity, Viet Nam has pivoted its electricity sector development plans to further prioritize the deployment of wind and solar generation. A clean energy transition such as this can deliver multiple social and economic benefits related to cost reductions, improved energy security, and public health.
This working paper was prepared to support least-cost energy sector planning in Viet Nam particularly for the upcoming Viet Nam Energy Outlook 2021 (VEO21) being prepared in partnership between Viet Nam’s Ministry of Industry and Trade (MOIT) and the Danish Energy Agency (DEA). This working paper discusses the use of discounting in energy models and the potential impact discount rate selection may have on a model’s cost-optimised technology selections. The paper also analyses the clean energy finance environment in Viet Nam to identify opportunities for policy levers to reduce the prevailing cost of capital and how these cost implications can be tested in the VEO21 modelling exercise.
The main outputs of this working paper are two sets of model inputs, an estimate for an appropriate social discount rate and secondly a set of high and low financial hurdle rates for renewable energy technologies for use in sensitivity or scenario analysis.
This paper discusses housing challenges facing people with disabilities in OECD and EU countries, and policy supports to make housing more affordable, accessible and adapted to their needs. It focuses on the adult population with disabilities living outside institutions, drawing on data from the European Union Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC), household surveys, national population census and disability surveys, and country responses to the 2021 OECD Questionnaire on Affordable and Social Housing. The paper summarises housing outcomes; discusses policy supports to ensure that people with disabilities can be safely, affordably and independently housed; and outlines actions for policy makers.
As artificial intelligence (AI) advances across economies and societies, policy makers and AI actors around the world seek to move from principles to practice. To harness the benefits of AI while mitigating the risks, governments are investing in AI R&D; leveraging AI in specific industries such as transportation and healthcare; building human capacity on AI; ensuring a fair labour market transformation; reviewing and adapting relevant policy and regulatory frameworks and developing standards; and co-operating internationally. This Going Digital Toolkit note provides an overview of the various AI policy initiatives undertaken by governments and analyses these initiatives throughout the AI policy cycle: 1) policy design; 2) policy implementation; 3) policy intelligence; and 4) approaches for international and multi-stakeholder co-operation on AI policy.
This Working Paper was developed to assist policy makers, education and Indigenous leaders, as well as education practitioners, to better support Indigenous children’s early learning and well-being. The paper focuses on early years policies and provision in Aotearoa New Zealand, Australia and Canada. It sets out a synthesis of evidence on children’s early development, with a particular focus on the conditions and approaches that support positive outcomes for Indigenous children. The Working Paper then outlines a set of promising initiatives that seek to create positive early learning environments for Indigenous children. Drawing on the available evidence and promising approaches, the paper presents a framework for strengthening Indigenous children’s early learning and well-being.