Browse by: "2015"

La plupart des études sur le chômage des jeunes attribuent une importance clé au cumul emploi/études pour raccourcir et améliorer les transitions de l’école à l’emploi et cela sur la base du fait qu’il permet aux jeunes d’acquérir les compétences demandées sur le marché du travail. Ce papier remplit le manque de données comparables à niveau international sur ce sujet. Grâce à l’Enquête sur les Compétences des Adultes (PIAAC), il permet d’évaluer l’étendue du cumul emploi/études dans 23 pays ou régions. Plus particulièrement, il permet d’identifier ces composantes principales (la formation professionnelle en alternance, l’apprentissage ou le travail des étudiants en dehors de ces programmes) et d’évaluer le lien entre le domaine d’étude et la nature du travail étudiant. Le papier étudie aussi comment les compétences des étudiants travailleurs sont utilisées aux seins des entreprises par rapport à celles des autres travailleurs et identifie les caractéristiques sociodémographiques ainsi que les institutions du marché du travail qui sont associées avec une probabilité accrue de cumul emploi/études. Pour finir, même s’il n’est pas possible d’examiner la relation entre le statut en termes de cumul emploi/études de chaque individu et sa réussite sur le marché du travail une fois les études terminées, le papier décèle quelques relations agrégées entre l’incidence du cumul emploi/études et le taux de chômage des jeunes sortis du système scolaire

What are the economic effects of implicit bank debt guarantees and who ultimately benefits from them? This paper finds that “financial excesses” – situations where bank credit reaches levels that reduce economic growth – have been stronger in OECD countries characterised by larger values of implicit guarantees and where bank creditors have not incurred losses in bank failure resolution cases. Also, implicit bank debt guarantees benefit financial sector employees and other high-income earners in two ways, increasing income inequality. First, implicit guarantees are likely to raise financial sector pay. This is consistent with the observation of “financial sector wage premia”, or financial sector employees earning in excess of their profile in terms of age, education and other characteristics. Second, implicit guarantees are likely to result in more and cheaper bank lending. If so, well-off people tend to benefit relatively more since household credit is more unequally distributed than income.

JEL classification: D63, E43, G21, G28, O47
Keywords: Bank funding costs, implicit guarantees for bank debt, bank failure resolution, finance and growth, finance and income inequality

Across OECD countries, 5% of students expect to work as teachers: 3% of boys and 6% of girls. The academic profile of students who expect to work as teachers varies, but in many OECD countries,students who expect to work as teachers have poorer mathematics and reading skills than other ambitious students who expect to work as professionals but not as teachers. PISA shows that, on average, a higher percentage of students expects to work as teachers in countries where teachers’ salaries are higher.

Les très hauts revenus sont aujourd’hui au coeur du débat public et des travaux universitaires. Ce document est le premier qui procède à une analyse complète du profil des 1 % des salariés les mieux payés dans 18 pays européens. Les données proviennent de la plus grande source harmonisée qui existe, une enquête auprès des employeurs qui porte sur le revenu du travail de 10 millions de salariés, hors travailleurs indépendants. Les caractéristiques mises en évidence sont globalement similaires d’un pays à l’autre. Les employés qui font partie des 1 % les mieux rémunérés se trouvent principalement parmi les personnes âgées de 40 à 60 ans, de sexe masculin, ayant fait des études supérieures, travaillant dans la finance ou l’industrie, et occupant un poste de haut dirigeant. L’analyse révèle également plusieurs différences entre pays. Par exemple, les employés à très hauts revenus sont plus jeunes en Europe de l’Est, et les femmes sont davantage représentées dans cette catégorie dans les pays où le taux d’emploi des femmes est plus élevé. Les nouvelles estimations que cette étude fournit recoupent celles basées sur des registres administratifs dans les quelques pays où de telles études existent, ce qui révèle que l’échantillon est globalement représentatif des caractéristiques des bénéficiaires de hauts revenus.

The top-performing country in the PISA assessment of digital reading was Singapore, followed by Korea, Hong Kong-China, Japan, Canada and Shanghai-China. Students in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Korea, Singapore and the United States show the most advanced web-browsing skills. More often than students elsewhere, they carefully select links to follow before clicking on them, and follow relevant links for as long as is needed to answer a question. There is a strong association between countries’ digital reading performance and the quality of students’ navigation across digital texts.

This paper investigates the factors that influence the international mobility of research scientists using a new measure of mobility derived from changes in affiliations reported by publishing scientists in a major global index of scholarly publications over the period 1996-2011. Using a gravity-based empirical framework, our research shows that measures of geographic and socioeconomic and scientific distance correlate negatively with scientist mobility between two countries. Scientific collaboration appears to be a major factor associated with the mobility of scientists. The analysis shows that the mobility of scientists particularly relies on flows of tertiary-level students in the opposite direction, from destination to origin country. This provides strong evidence that brain circulation is a complex and multi-directional phenomenon. For a majority of country pairs (dyads) in our sample, the mobility of scientists is generally better described by commensurate knowledge flows in both directions, rather than one dominating the other. The analysis also shows that mobility can be positively influenced by convergence in economic conditions and resources dedicated to R&D, as well as reduced visa-related restrictions.

• When choosing a school for their child, parents in all participating countries value academic achievement highly; but they are often even more concerned about the safety and environment of the school and the school’s reputation.
• The children of parents who consider academic achievement very important score 46 points higher in mathematics than the children of parents who consider it not important.

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is the reference framework used to classify education programmes and related qualifications by education levels and fields. The basic concepts and definitions of ISCED are intended to be internationally valid and cover the full range of education systems. ISCED 2011, the second major revision of the classification, reflects significant shifts in the structure of tertiary education resulting from the Bologna process in Europe, the development of early childhood education, and increasing interest in statistics on the outcomes of education such as educational attainment. ISCED 2011 has been implemented for the first time in data collected for indicators published in Education at a Glance 2015. This new classification offers the potential for new analysis at both tertiary level and in early childhood education. The ISCED classification of fields of education was reviewed separately. The ISCED 2013 Fields of Education and Training classification (ISCED-F 2013) will be used for the first time in Education at a Glance 2017.

In most OECD countries, the large majority of adults had at least an upper secondary qualification in 2013, making the completion of upper secondary education the minimum threshold for successful labour market entry and continued employability or the pursuit of further education. Young people who left school before completing upper secondary education face difficulty in the labour market but also have particularly low cognitive skills compared with upper secondary graduates. Those aged 15-29 who left school before completing upper secondary education are twice as likely to have low numeracy scores than those with an upper secondary education. On average across OECD countries, the unemployment rate among 15-29 year-olds not in education is 13 percentage points lower among those with an upper secondary education than for those without. Having a tertiary qualification reduces unemployment rates by a further five percentage points.

OECD’s Recommendation of the Council on Budgetary Governance makes a substantial contribution to discussion of good budgetary practice by synthesising much common understanding while updating it to recognise some lessons from the experience of the Great Recession. Yet its implicit understanding of the purposes of budget processes has weaknesses both as policy and political analysis. The policy understanding overemphasises the importance of budget totals relative to budget details. The political understanding is as top-down as the policy view. Although budgets might be seen as contracts between citizens and the state, in a representative system they are better seen as treaties among citizens negotiated through politics. The Recommendation barely recognizes the existence of and challenges from political conflict.

JEL classification: H00, H60, H61
Keywords: Balance, fiscal policy, information, representation, top-down, United States

Les déterminants du bien-être subjectif indiquent que les Mexicains déclarent, en moyenne, des niveaux de satisfaction de la vie qui sont au-dessus de ce qui serait prévu par des mesures objectives du bien-être. Ce paradoxe soulève la question suivante: les facteurs du bien-être subjectif au Mexique sont-ils différents dans les autres pays? Cet article tente de répondre à cette question en utilisant des données de la World Gallup Poll et du Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Geografía (INEGI). En particulier, il examine si l'impact des mesures objectives du bien-être sur la satisfaction de la vie est différent au Mexique par rapport à d'autres pays. Les résultats montrent que les facteurs de satisfaction de vie sont très semblables à ceux des autres pays. Au Mexique, comme dans d'autres pays, le revenu, l'éducation, la santé, la situation professionelle et d'autres caractéristiques individuelles sont significativement associées à la satisfaction de vie. Ces résultats suggèrent que le niveau moyen plus élevé de satisfaction de vie au Mexique est sans doute lié à des caractéristiques de pays non observées, comme des obstacles culturels ou linguistiques. Ce document de travail économique se rapporte à l'Étude économique 2015 de l'OCDE sur le Mexique (www.oecd.org/fr/eco/etudes/etude-economique-mexique.htm).

• While PISA reveals large gender differences in reading, in favour of 15-year-old girls, the gap is narrower when digital reading skills are tested. Indeed, the Survey of Adult Skills suggests that there are no significant gender differences in digital literacy proficiency among 16-29 year-olds.
• Boys are more likely to underachieve when they attend schools with a large proportion of socio‑economically disadvantaged students.
• Girls – even high-achieving girls – tend to underachieve compared to boys when they are asked to think like scientists, such as when they are asked to formulate situations mathematically or interpret phenomena scientifically.
• Parents are more likely to expect their sons, rather than their daughters, to work in a science, technology, engineering or mathematics field – even when their 15-year-old boys and girls perform at the same level in mathematics.

La rénovation énergétique et les énergies renouvelables constituent un important moyen de réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Or, les ménages n’engagent pas un grand nombre d’investissements dans les énergies propres qui seraient rentables. Le présent document passe en revue différents arguments présentés dans les travaux publiés pour expliquer le sous-investissement constaté dans l’efficacité énergétique. Même si les investissements dans les technologies d'énergie renouvelable ne sont, généralement pas (encore) rentables, bon nombre de ses pilotes sont similaires à celles qui déterminent les investissements d'efficacité énergétique, et les deux types d'investissement sont donc évalués conjointement. Il présente aussi de nouveaux éléments sur les obstacles à l’investissement dans ce domaine, provenant de l’enquête de l'OCDE sur la politique de l’environnement et le comportement individuel. Enfin, il expose des solutions que les pouvoirs publics pourraient mettre en oeuvre pour aider à surmonter certains de ces obstacles.

The issue of a “level playing field” has re-emerged as a major issue in international aviation. This issue has been around for decades but has been raised in recent policy debates. One policy forum in which this has been raised is the European Commission’s proposed revision to Regulation 868/2004, which some view as a response to allegations by some legacy carriers to the rapid growth of the Middle East carriers such as Emirates, Etihad Airways and Qatar Airways. Another dimension to the concern over the level playing field is the evolution in foreign ownership rules, such as the type of treaty clauses being negotiated by the European Union. Could broader acceptance of service by carriers owned by third-party nationals create conditions for a flag of convenience regime of the kind that characterises parts of maritime liner shipping? The flag of convenience issue has been discussed in the U.S. media with regard to Norwegian Air Shuttle. Norwegian’s long haul services are operated by subsidiaries Norwegian Long Haul AS and Norwegian International Ltd. The former is registered in Norway while the latter is registered in Ireland and operates flights for its parent. Some long haul flights have operated with contract flight attendant labour based in Thailand.

The water in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) refers to the difference between the bound level of trade restrictiveness permitted by the GATS and the actual trade regime. Using the OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI), this report provides estimates of the water in 15 service sectors for 40 countries. The level of water in GATS commitments varies across sectors. It is highest in sectors where most countries have no commitments (unbound), such as audio-visual services or transport services, as well as sectors where countries tend to make commitments only for selected types of activities, such as legal services. The lowest level of water is observed in sectors such as telecoms, construction, computer and distribution services that are also characterised by a more liberal trade regime. Generally speaking, current services trade policies are much more open than what countries have committed in the GATS and sectors that are “unbound” can be fairly open.

While public regulation in food and agriculture is attracting attention at both policy and research level for their potential implications on international food trade, policy implications of agricultural standards – understood to be legally not mandatory and hence voluntary – are much less well understood. Yet, environmental and organic standards have grown in importance in agriculture and agri-food chains, making also their potential trade effects more relevant. In this context, understanding the linkages between governments and standards has become a key element in the debate. This report analyses possible roles of public authorities in the area of environmental and organic standards, including policy objectives, options for interaction and means for the use of standards for achieving public policy goals. It identifies the main objectives behind government activity on environmental and organic standards in the area of consumer protection and fraud prevention, the enabling of functioning food markets and the improvement of efficiency in the design, implementation and monitoring of public policies. Countries have taken very different approaches towards dealing with standards on organic agriculture which frequently, though not always, are seen as a subset of environment-related standards. Choices for organic standards range between market self-regulation and the development of government-owned public standards. More generally, the level of public intervention often reflects OECD governments’ perception on the environmental benefits of organic agriculture itself.

France devotes a great deal of resources to vocational training for youths and especially adults, but the system is unduly complex and yields rather poor returns. The basic literacy and numeracy skills of many French adults remain weak in international comparison, with harmful effects on employment opportunities, wages and well-being. Access to basic skills training is poor for those who need it most, many of whom come from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. Secondary vocational education and apprenticeship training still suffer from a serious image problem in the minds of French families, even though the latter have a good track record. The government has succeeded in ensuring that the number of apprenticeships is growing, but that is mostly due to those studying at the tertiary level or at least for a higher secondary diploma. The labour market outcomes of those with only shorter vocational qualifications are not good, and quality in that stream needs to improve. To do so better teachers and workplace trainers need to be attracted to the field, especially individuals who can better link practical experience and theoretical concepts. The financing of the adult training system involves complex collection mechanisms even following a major recent overhaul. Making further changes will have to confront entrenched interests, even if the use of the training levy to finance business groups and unions has now ended. The goal is to direct more training funds to workers in small firms who have the weakest skills as well as to jobseekers, but this might be more easily achieved by shifting the funding base from a levy on employers to fiscal incentives or direct subsidies. There remains a need to align responsibilities for adult training with corresponding control over funds. Workers are henceforth to be given personal training accounts in which they can accumulate rights to up to 150 hours of training. But the enormous number of providers and courses on offer calls for greater efforts to develop good guidance, evaluation and certification systems to ensure the training finally chosen is appropriate and of sufficiently high quality.

This paper presents an analysis of urban spatial structure and its trends in the OECD between 2001 and 2011. It does so by using a standardised definition of urban areas in 29 OECD countries as composed of high density cores and their respective commuting zones. While urban population is growing everywhere, the way in which populations locate throughout the urban space differs across OECD cities and countries. The prevalent trend is an increasing dispersion of the population, with growth taking place outside existing centres. However, in specific countries, there are cities experiencing a higher growth in their central cores, while others are strengthening their polycentric structures. Overall, the population has grown more in relatively low-density locations close to the main centre, but outside it. Closeness to sub-centres also proves to be a strong advantage for growth and suggests the emergence of new centralities shaping urban spatial structures.