Browse by: "E"

Severe environmental problems were a key issue in the protests that marked the end of communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. This groundbreaking book provides new insights into the interaction between economic policy reforms, environmental protection efforts and environmental conditions in the region's subsequent transition to market-based economies and democratic societies over the past eight to ten years. The unique contribution of the book is its synthesis of a vast amount of information and cumulative experience together with detailed examples and case studies to provide a coherent analysis of the challenges and achievements in institutional strengthening and policy reform, environmental policy instruments, environmental financing, and environmental management in enterprises. It also reviews the development of domestic public participation and international co-operation for the safeguarding of the region's environment and discusses trends in industrial pollution and biodiversity protection. The book shows that economic reforms provided a crucial stimulus for environmental improvement, leading to reductions in high pollution levels. Moreover, several countries have strengthened their domestic environmental policies, institutions, and financing, resulting in further improvements. Nonetheless, many serious problems remain, and others have grown worse over the transition period: in many countries of the former Soviet Union in particular, economic crises and political stagnation have impeded environmental protection efforts. Continued partnerships between governments of the region, OECD donor countries, international financial institutions and organisations, environmental NGOs, businesses and trade unions, as well as public support for these, will be essential to reinforce the environmental improvements achieved thus far.

To meet a continuing growth in demand for learning, OECD countries seek to provide a wider array of education and training opportunities for learners in their earliest years through adult life. Has increased participation in education and training in the 1990s met the demand for lifelong learning? What gaps remain, and for which learners and in which types of learning? What are the most promising policy directions to encourage the expansion of learning opportunities that respond to learning aims and learner needs? How can policies help marshall the resources needed for the investment in learning and to encourage their efficienct use? This 1999 edition of Education Policy Analysis explores these and other questions. Drawing on the policy experience and trends in OECD countries, the four chapters in this book cover: projections of growth in participation in formal education and training to meet lifelong learning targets, and implications for costs; policy options to secure the benefits of early childhood education and care; the uses of ICT in education; and tracking participation from under-represented groups in tertiary education.

Contains a major international compilation of energy prices of all market levels: import prices, industry prices and consumer prices. The statistics cover main petroleum products, gas, coal, and electricity, giving for imported products on average price both for importing country and country of origin. Every issue includes full notes on sources and methods and a description of price mechanisms in each country.

This report supplements the December 1997 edition of External Debt Statistics, which provides figures for debt stocks for 1995 and 1996. This supplement presents time series going back to the mid-1980s for detailed debt service and debt stock data for both major country groups and 174 individual countries and territories. In addition, it provides data on net resource flows to major country groups.
These data are reported to the OECD by the governments and credit institutions of its Member countries, and the main international organisations. Common reporting rules allow for a comprehensive and consistent account of external debt. This publication is therefore invaluable for international comparisons and country risk analysis.

Contains a major international compilation of energy prices of all market levels: import prices, industry prices and consumer prices. The statistics cover main petroleum products, gas, coal, and electricity, giving for imported products on average price both for importing country and country of origin. Every issue includes full notes on sources and methods and a description of price mechanisms in each country. The feature article is titled Looking at Energy Subsidies: Getting the Prices Right.

The International Energy Agency's 1999 review of Hungary's energy policies and programmes. Hungary joined the International Energy Agency on 3 June 1997 as part of its transition toward a market economy and integration into the West that began after 1990. It also envisages accession to the European Union (EU) within the next three years. This will require further changes to the country’s energy sector that underwent considerable change during the transition years. Previously operated by the state-held body MVM, Hungary’s electricity supply industry was restructured and privatised, with generation, transmission and distribution now separate functions. But as the country’s wholesale company, MVM still dominates the industry. New legislation provides for regulated third party access and progressive market opening, starting with 10% by 2001. MOL is the sole domestic producer of oil and gas, but the oil retail market is now fully competitive. MOL and the gas distribution and supply companies have been privatised, and new legislation introducing competition into the gas market is to be completed by 2002. Hungary signed the Climate Convention in 1994 and is committed to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions. The country’s total primary energy supply collapsed after 1989 and is not expected to recover to previous levels before 2010, so Hungary is certain to fulfil its obligations. But scope exists for major energy efficiency improvements.

This IEA report provides a comprehensive, in-depth assessment of the energy policies of Finland, including recommendations on future policy developments. Over the past years, Finnish energy markets have undergone reform and restructuring. Competition was introduced into the electricity market in 1995, and has since been strengthened significantly. Competition in the natural gas market is imminent. Finland is not yet connected to the EU natural gas network, but the rules on competition cover cross-border competition from the outset to prepare for the future. Attention still needs to be given to market power. Finland and the wider Nordic market are still relatively concentrated. The recent merger of Finland's largest electricity company with the country's dominant oil and gas conglomerate did nothing to alleviate this situation. Price regulation and anti-trust oversight may have to be strengthened. Nevertheless, the Finnish power market is a successful example and worthwhile for other countries to study. Finland was the first country in the world to introduce a carbon tax and has an excellent record in energy efficiency policy. But carbon emissions continue to rise. Increased use of natural gas and Finland's interconnection to the EU gas grid may be the best approach to reducing CO2 emissions.

This booklet gives an introduction to the issues raised by regulatory reform of the electricity sector. The sector is undergoing change worldwide. A key objective of reform is to improve efficiency in order to reduce prices for electricity consumers. More competitive power markets are required to achieve this objective, but security of supply must also be sustained in the new conditions, and environmental objectives are of growing importance. Ultimately, choices must be made by end-users themselves and not by others on their behalf. Hence, the structure of the industry needs to change to promote end-user choice, as do the regulatory institutions and rules that set the framework. The contents of this volume were first published as part of an OECD book on regulatory reform in a variety of sectors. This updated version of the study is one in a series of short publications by the IEA on energy market reforms.

The International Energy Agency's 1999 review of Ireland's energy policies and programmes. It finds that strong growth in the Irish economy poses considerable challenges for Ireland’s energy policy, but growth also provides resources for the Government to address energy policy issues in a manner consistent with economic and social objectives. This IEA report reviews all aspects of Irish energy policy. The sector is at present dominated by four state-owned bodies. In the electricity industry, the Electricity Supply Board may continue to dominate the market and impede the development of competition. In the gas industry, there is a need to develop new sources of supply to match growth in demand. Growth in demand for gas has given rise to concerns about the diversity of the fuel supply and security of supply. Peat will become the only domestic energy resource in a matter of years, unless new gas development occurs to replace the Ballycotton and Kinsale gas fields. There is no electricity interconnector other than to Northern Ireland, and the single gas interconnector is close to full capacity. Policies on peat have had social objectives. These objectives may not be compatible with economic efficiency and environmental objectives and could have implications for the future of the energy sector. The report also draws attention to the need to develop a comprehensive data base on greenhouse gas emissions. A new programme of energy efficiency measures is needed urgently to replace the present programme of the Irish Energy Centre. This report forms part of a series of periodic in-depth reviews conducted by the IEA on a four-year cycle. Short reviews of energy developments in all 24 IEA countries (including summaries of the year’s in-depth reviews) are published annually in Energy Policies of IEA Countries.

Europe's single currency was launched a bit more than a year ago for eleven of the fifteen countries of the Union. This study assesses economic developments and policies during the inaugural year of the new regime. It analyses the economic performance and prospects of the euro area as a whole, and highlights to what extent aggregate trends are shaped by convergence or divergence at national or regional levels. Macroeconomic policies are discussed in depth. The common monetary policy carried out by the Eurosystem and the underlying framework are scrutinised, as is the co-ordination of national fiscal policies against the background of the Stability and Growth Pact. A special chapter is devoted to the links between structural features and policies on the one hand and macroeconomic performance on the other. It argues that broad-based and properly designed structural reforms would boost Europe's economic potential significantly and ease macroeconomic policy trade-offs. A number of highly topical issues are addressed, such as: - How fast is growth picking up and unemployment declining in the euro area? - Why did the euro weaken in 1999 and does it matter? - How effectively was monetary policy conducted? - What degree of fiscal prudence is needed over the next few years? - Which rigidities continue to stunt growth in Europe? This is the second OECD study on EMU, following the one published in early 1999 under the title EMU: Facts, Challenges and Policies.

Contains a major international compilation of energy prices of all market levels: import prices, industry prices and consumer prices.
The statistics cover main petroleum products, gas, coal, and electricity, giving for imported products on average price both for importing country and country of origin. Every issue includes full notes on sources and methods and a description of price mechanisms in each country.

This IEA report provides a comprehensive in-depth assessment of the energy policies of Switzerland, including recommendations for policy developments. Although the federal government has been increasingly involved in Swiss energy policy, the cantons retain extensive authority. There is a discussion of the 'Energy 2000 Action Plan' - the core of Swiss energy policy. The plan aims to stabilise electricity consumption, reduce the use of fossil fuels, increase the supply of renewable energies, upgrade the capacity of existing nuclear power plants and stabilise carbon dioxide emissions. The report analyses the reasons for Switzerland's slowdown in fossil fuel use - a trend which has constrained CO2 emissions. To help meet its national commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Switzerland is seriously considering several forms of energy taxes including a 'carbon tax'. There remains some room for improvement in the area of energy efficiency and the energy tax structure could be more focussed on climate change issues and energy efficiency. The report recommends enhanced co-operation between and among federal and local governments. Regulatory reform in the electricity and natural gas sectors is a priority issue. These sectors are characterised by a large number of companies and significant involvement of local governments in their ownership, regulation and price setting. The report proposes to introduce competition in these industries.

This IEA report provides a comprehensive in-depth assessment of the energy policies of Japan, including recommendations for policy development. Since the last in-depth review in 1994, the two major themes in Japan's energy policy have been reform of the regulatory framework and measures to respond to climate change. Energy sector reform in the energy sector is an important component of overall policy on economic recovery. Increasingly, the market will be relied on to achieve a satisfactory outcome. Independent Power Producers have entered the electricity market since 1995. The report analyses anticipated further reforms to liberalise the market for extra-high-voltage consumers (28% of all supply) and to introduce accounting separation of the activities of the existing utilities. Approximately 90% of carbon dioxide produced in Japan is energy-related. Policy to reduce emissions from the energy sector is focused on drastic energy efficiency measures and on the promotion of nuclear power and "new energies". The review discusses the cost-effectiveness of present energy efficiency measures, but considers that the current nuclear energy production target is achievable.

This IEA report provides a comprehensive, in-depth assessment of the energy policies of Italy, including recommendations on future policy developments. The Italian government is undertaking major reforms in the energy sector. It has started to decentralise energy policy, giving more responsibilities to regions and local authorities. Thus, co-ordination across regions and with the national government is becoming an important issue. In February 1999, competition was introduced in the electricity sector. The Government is also preparing a Legislative Decree to implement the EU Directive on natural gas. In enforcing competition, attention needs to be given to the dominant position of national companies in the electricity, natural gas and oil sectors. Italy has high taxes on energy in comparison with other IEA countries. This has encouraged the country’s low energy intensity. In addition, in December 1998, the Government introduced a CO2 tax. Tax policy needs a long-term strategy which would better reflect the external cost of using energy and make the tax structure consistent across the different sectors and fuels. The report also recommends that the Government take further measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to meet the Kyoto target.