Browse by: "2008"
Index
Title Index
Year Index
As the Polluter-Pays Principle is a fundamental principle of cost allocation, its analysis covers a substantial part of the vast field of environmental resource allocation.
This report, originally published in 1975, presents a selection of relevant theoretical and practical analyses now that the Polluter-Pays Principle must be regarded as a mainstay of Member countries’ environmental policies.
First, in the matter of definitions of the Polluter-Pays Principle, the definition officially adopted by the OECD is outlined, together with an answer to the questions which consequently arise.
With regard to analysis of the Polluter-Pays Principle, one study deals in detail with the economic foundations of the Principle and possible effects of its application, such as on behaviour of the polluting firm.
Lastly, the important problem of implementing the PolluterPays Principle is discussed at some length.
This Test Guideline describes how to plan and carry out processing studies, i.e. determine residue levels in primary processed commodities following pesticide application on raw agriculture commodities (RAC) under conditions likely to lead to maximum residues. It provides the distribution of residues (active ingredient, and/or metabolites, degradation products), and preferential accumulation in various processed products resulting from the processing of a commodity.
Used RACs (of plant origin and animal origin) should contain field-treated quantifiable residues, at sufficient levels so that concentration/dilution factors for the various consumed products and non-consumed intermediates can be determined. Pesticides residues to be measured are determined by the residue definition based on studies on the nature of the residue in processing and/or in plant and livestock. For each field test site (at least two independent) the processing factor (Pf) is calculated as the ratio between the residue level in the processed commodity and in the RAC or the commodity to be processed. If a given commodity has two or more significantly different commercial procedures, two trials for each procedure are necessary. Spiked samples should be run concurrently with those from the processing study to ensure the method validity.
This method provides information on health hazard likely to arise from exposure to test substance via oral administration. The method is based on the repeated oral administration of the substance of interest during one limited period (one dose level daily during 28 days). This Guideline is intended primarily for use with rodents (rat preferably). At least 10 animals (5 female and 5 male) should be used for each dose level. Three tests groups, at least, should be used. The test compound is administered by gavage or via the diet or drinking water. A limit test may be performed if no effects would be expected at a dose of 1000 mg/kg bw/d. The report of this study will include results from clinical and functional observations, body weight and food/water consumption measurements, hematology and clinical biochemistry; as well as gross necropsy and histopathology.
This Test Guideline describes a method to assess bioaccumulation of sediment-associated chemicals in endobenthic oligochaetes worms. It applies to stable, neutral organic chemicals having log Kow values between 3.0 and 6.0, superlipophilic substances that show a log Kow of more than 6.0, or stable metallo-organic compounds which tend to associate with sediments.
The test consists of two phases. During the uptake phase, worms are exposed to sediment spiked with the test substance, topped with reconstituted water and equilibrated as appropriate. Groups of control worms are held under identical conditions. The duration of the uptake phase is by default 28 days, unless a steady-state has been reached before. For the elimination phase, the worms are transferred to a sediment-water-system free of test substance. This second phase is terminated when either the 10% level of steady state concentration, or of the concentration measured in the worms on day 28 of the uptake phase, is reached, or after a maximum of 10 days. Change of the concentration of the test substance in/on the worms is monitored throughout both phases of the test. The uptake rate constant (ks), the elimination rate constant (ke) and the kinetic bioaccumulation factor (BAFK = ks/ ke) are calculated. Radiolabelled test substances may be used to determine whether metabolites identification and quantification should be made. The minimum number of treated replicates for kinetic measurements should be three per sampling point throughout uptake and elimination phase. To ensure the test validity (cumulative mortality of the worms < 20% of the initial number), toxicity tests should also be conducted at regular intervals. Besides, the worm lipid content, the sediment total organic carbon content and the residue level in worms at the end of the elimination phase are useful for the interpretation of the results.
This Test Guideline describes a method to assess the extent and kinetics of primary and ultimate biodegradation of organic chemicals whose route of entry into the environment begins with their discharge to wastewater. It consists of five simulation tests in a) sewer systems, b) activated sludge, c) anaerobic digester sludge, d) treated effluent in the mixing zone of surface water, and e) untreated wastewater that is directly discharged to surface water. These tests are appropriate for chemicals released continuously or episodically to wastewater.
The five test methods described are open batch systems or closed gas flow-through batch systems. The principle objectives are to i) measure the rate of primary biodegradation, ii) measure the rate of mineralization and iii ) follow the formation and decay of major transformation products when appropriate.
Typically, a test chemical, radiolabelled (14C) in an appropriate position, is incubated with a representative environmental sample. Abiotic and biotic treatments are prepared for each test chemical and condition. The level of parent and degradation products is determined using chromatographic separation and radio-analytical detection methods.
This Test Guideline describes a method to estimate the developmental toxicity of a test chemical to the dung dwelling life stages of dung-dependent dipteran species. Two test species can be used. The test chemical is mixed with bovine faeces, to which either 10 eggs of Scathophaga stercoraria or 10 larvae of Musca autumnalis are added. The test will be terminated 5 days after emergence of the last adult in the control (> 18 days for S. stercoraria, >13 days for M. autumnalis). Then the possible impacts of the test chemical on the following measurement endpoints are assessed under controlled conditions: sex and total number of emerged adult flies, retardation of emergence indicated by the developmental rate and morphological change. Depending on the experimental design, the No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) or the Effect concentration for x percent effect (ECx) can be determined. This Guideline can be used for water soluble or insoluble substances, but is not applicable to volatile substances. If the toxicity of the chemical is unknown, five nominal test concentrations should be conducted. A positive control should be tested periodically. The test is considered valid if in the controls hatching of larvae is superior or equal to 70% of the number of introduced eggs, emergence of adults is superior or equal to 70% and superior or equal to 50% of the respectively hatched and introduced larvae and if the emergence of adult flies starts after 18 +- 2 days (S. stercoraria) or after 13 +- 2 days(M. autumnalis).
This Test Guideline describes a method to assess the effects of chemical substances in soil on the reproductive output of the soil mite species Hypoaspis (Geolaelaps) aculeifer Canestrini (Acari: Laelapidae). It can be used for water soluble or insoluble substances, but not with volatile substances.
Adult females of similar age are exposed to a range of concentrations of the test substance mixed into 20 g dry mass of artificial soil 28-35 days after the start of the egg laying period. Depending on the endpoint (ECx, NOEC or both), five to twelve concentrations should be tested. At least two to four replicates for each test concentrations and six to eight control replicates, of 10 animals each, are recommended. At 20¡ãC, the test lasts 14 days after introducing the females, which usually allows the control offspring to reach the deutonymph stage. The number of surviving females (mortality ¡Ü 20% for a valid test) and the number of juveniles per test vessel (at least 50 for a valid test) are determined. The fecundity of the mites exposed to the test substance is compared to that of controls in order to determine the ECx (e.g. EC10, EC50) or the No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC). Any observed differences between the behaviour and the morphology of the mites in the control and the treated vessels should be recorded.
The test method described in this Test Guideline assesses the effect of chemicals on the reproductive output of Daphnia magna Straus. To this end, young female Daphnia are exposed to the test substance added to water at a range of concentrations (at least five). For semi-static tests, at least 10 animals at each test concentration and for flow-through tests, 40 animals divided into four groups of 10 animals at each test concentration, are used. The test duration is 21 days. Reproductive output of the parent animals and the total number of living offspring produced per parent alive at the end of the test should be reported. The study report should also include: the daily counting of the offspring, the daily recording of the parent mortality, the weekly measurement of oxygen concentration, temperature, hardness and pH values and the determination of the concentrations of test substance. Optionally, the sex ratio of the offspring may be recorded. The reproductive output of the animals exposed to the test substance is compared to that of the control in order to determine the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) and hence the no observed effect concentration (NOEC). In addition, and as far as possible, the data are analyzed using a regression model in order to estimate the concentration that would cause an x % reduction in reproductive output.
This book takes a careful look at the concept of sustainable development. What does it mean? How is it affected by production, consumption and globalisation? How it can be measured, and what can be done to promote it? The OECD produces data, research and policy recommendations on many issues related to sustainable development, including climate change, co-operation with developing countries and corporate social responsibility. OECD Insights: Sustainable Development draws on that expertise. It argues that to be sustainable, development has to be based on progress in three areas at once: the economy, society and the environment.
This book examines the contributions that space technologies can make in tackling some of the serious problems posed by climate change. Focusing on examples of water management, marine resources and maritime transport, it sets out the rationale for further developing satellite systems to measure and monitor climate change and help mitigate its consequences. The report underlines the need to consider satellites not just as research and development systems, but as an important component of a critical communication- and information-based infrastructure for modern societies. The tool box for decision makers that concludes the book reviews different methodological options for deciding on investments in space-based earth observation.
Policy coherence is increasingly in the interest of OECD countries and developing countries alike, given their growing economic, social and environmental interdependence. This report presents scenarios showing numerical results of changes to individual policies as well as policy packages implemented simultaneously by OECD and developing countries. The results can be used to anticipate the outcomes of decisions and implement the appropriate set of policies. The scenarios also show how policy combinations could substantially improve both economic and environmental outcomes together, confirming the need for policy coherence.
The implementation of biodiversity policies will often benefit different groups to a greater or lesser degree. For example, in establishing a property right to facilitate management of a biodiversity-related resource, people who previously had unrestricted use will be adversely affected. Combining analysis and a wealth of case studies, this book offers concepts and tools for addressing distributive issues in biodiversity policy. It will help policy makers put together strategies for anticipating distributive impacts across different groups; and for selecting processes and instruments that manage distributive impacts without compromising conservation and use objectives.
Oil consumption is increasingly concentrated in transport and relatively limited fluctuations in transport demand can have increasingly significant effects on oil prices. This Round Table assesses the policy instruments available to address oil security and climate change and examines their interaction with measures to manage congestion and mitigate local air pollution. A number of incompatibilities and trade-offs are identified underlining the importance of integrated policy making. The report includes an examination of the factors that drive oil prices in the short and long term and a discussion of the outlook for oil supply.
This edition of OECD's periodic review of Turkey's environmental policy finds that Turkey has achieved consolidation of environmental progress and its environmental legislation is increasingly incorporating the EU environmental aquis. But pollution, energy, and resource intensities still need to be reduced and environmentally related health problems need to be addressed. This review systematically looks at air, water, nature and biodiversity, the environmental-economic interface, the environmental-social interface, and international co-operation, making 45 specific recommendations.
OECD's comprehensive review of Hungary's environmental programs and policies, covering air and water management, nature and biodiversity, sustainable development, the environment-economy interface, the environment-social interface, and international commitments. The review includes relevant statistical information as well as a series of recommendations for strengthening environmental infrastructure, implementing environmental policy and integrating environmental concerns into economic decisions.
This systematic review of environmental policies and programmes in Denmark finds progress in tackling environmental challenges over the last ten years, but insists the country must green its economy (e.g. transport, agriculture, energy sectors and fiscal policies) and must face special challenges associated with health, biodiversity, and marine protection.
OECD's periodic review of Australia's environmental policies and programmes. This edition reviews progress since the last review in 1998 and in relation to the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy. It systematically examines environmental management (water, air, nature), sustainable development (environment-economy interface, environment-agriculture interface, environment-social interface) and international commitments. In each area, it makes a series of recommendations.
The OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030 provides analyses of economic and environmental trends to 2030, and simulations of policy actions to address the key challenges. Without new policies, we risk irreversibly damaging the environment and the natural resource base needed to support economic growth and well-being. The costs of policy inaction are high.
But the Outlook shows that tackling the key environmental problems we face today -- including climate change, biodiversity loss, water scarcity and the health impacts of pollution -- is both achievable and affordable. It highlights a mix of policies that can address these challenges in a cost-effective way. The focus of this Outlook is expanded from the 2001 edition to reflect developments in both OECD countries and Brazil, Russia, India, Indonesia, China, South Africa (BRIICS), and how they might better co-operate on global and local environmental problem-solving.
"An indispensable addition to the expanding body of environmental literature...Essential"
-Choice
These proceedings examine the nature and strength of jointness between agricultural commodity production and non-commodity outputs from the perspective of three areas important to the agricultural sector: rural development, environmental externalities and food security. This workshop also examined whether the relationships among these non-commodity outputs were complementary or competing. Finally, the policy implications that could be derived from the findings of this workshop were also a key element in the discussions and are summarised in the Rapporteur’s summary.
Most people support sustainable development without knowing what it is. What exactly are sustainable consumption and sustainable production, and how are these practices identified? This volume reviews the state-of-the-art in measuring sustainable production processes in industry. It includes metrics developed by business, trade unions, academics, NGOs, and the OECD and IEA. These measurement approaches cover the "triple bottom line" (economic, environmental and social dimensions) of industrial sustainability.
In the Same Series
Subsidy Reform and Sustainable Development: Political Economy Aspects
Subsidy Reform and Sustainable Development: Economic, Environmental and Social Aspects
Institutionalising Sustainable Development
Further Reading
Measuring Sustainable Development: Integrated Economic, Environmental and Social Frameworks