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By 2050, the global population living in cities is projected to reach 5 billion, growing from 3.5 billion in 2015. Massive investment in infrastructure will be needed to accommodate this growth, and to adapt infrastructure to climate change and benefit from the digital transition. This report explores three ways to meet this challenge. Firstly, it outlines how new forms of urban planning can help to mobilise private finance for inclusive, resilient and sustainable urban investment. Secondly, it explores how leveraging private investment can help to strengthen cities capacity to support needed investment in a tighter fiscal environment. Finally, it considers the potential opportunities and challenges for mobilising sustainable finance – green, social and sustainable bonds and loans, sustainability-linked bonds and catastrophe bonds – for infrastructure investment by City Governments. The report also includes 17 short case studies from 12 countries that demonstrate innovative practices for creating the Cities of Tomorrow.
Although Africa accounts for one-fifth of the global population, the region currently attracts only 3% of global energy investment. By 2030, energy investment needs to double to over USD 200 billion per year, in order for African countries to achieve all their energy-related development goals, including universal access to modern energy, while meeting in time and in full their nationally determined contributions.
Financing Clean Energy in Africa, a World Energy Outlook Special Report, builds on the key findings from the Africa Energy Outlook 2022, which introduced the Sustainable Africa Scenario (SAS), and charts innovative investment solutions across the continent that are critical to scale up energy investment. It develops a theory of change based on the positive spillover effects of increasing the availability of affordable capital for clean energy projects. Currently, the cost of capital for energy projects in African countries is at least 2-3x higher than in advanced economies and China, which hinders investment by raising project costs.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) and the African Development Bank Group have joined forces to produce this new analysis, which benefitted from the review of over 85 case studies and over 40 stakeholder interviews. The report focuses on a range of topics, spanning technologies and financing providers, including local institutions, and looks at what types of capital are most suited for the specificities of each sector or technology. The analysis pays close attention to how to scale up private investment, including the role of de-risking support from development finance institutions (DFIs) and donors: by 2030, USD 28 billion of concessional capital will be necessary to mobilise the required USD 90 billion in private investment in clean energy. Increasing the role of the private sector allows DFIs and donors to also scale up support to non-commercial areas, such as enabling environments, unproven technologies and fragile and conflict-afflicted states, unproven technologies.
This report aims to shed light on how EECCA countries and development co-operation partners are working together to finance climate actions, using the OECD DAC database to examine finance flows by provider, sector, financial instrument, channel, etc. A significant amount was committed by international public sources to the 11 countries comprising the EECCA in 2013 and 2014 (i.e. USD 3.3 billion per year), but the scale of such finance varies considerably from country to country and is insufficient to achieve and strengthen their climate targets communicated through the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions COP21.
In addition, while a range of climate-related policies have already been developed by the EECCA countries, the extent to which such policies are being effectively implemented and conducive to attracting climate finance is still unclear. In this respect, this report proposes a set of questions for the EECCA countries to self-assess their readiness to seize opportunities to access scaled-up climate finance from various sources: public, private, international and domestic.
Infrastructure worldwide has suffered from chronic under-investment for decades and currently makes up more than 60% of greenhouse gas emissions. A deep transformation of existing infrastructure systems is needed for both climate and development, one that includes systemic conceptual and behavioural changes in the ways in which we manage and govern our societies and economies. This report is a joint effort by the OECD, UN Environment and the World Bank Group, supported by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. It focuses on how governments can move beyond the current incremental approach to climate action and more effectively align financial flows with climate and development priorities. The report explores six key transformative areas that will be critical to align financial flows with low-emission and resilient societies (planning, innovation, public budgeting, financial systems, development finance, and cities) and looks at how rapid socio-economic and technological developments, such as digitalisation, can open new pathways to low-emission, resilient futures.
The recent debate on the role of money in politics has shed the light on the challenges of political finance regulations. What are the risks associated with the funding of political parties and election campaigns? Why are existing regulatory models still insufficient to tackle those risks? What are the links between money in politics and broader frameworks for integrity in the public sector? This report addresses these three questions and provides a Framework on Financing Democracy, designed to shape the global debate and provide policy options as well as a mapping of risks. It also features country case studies of Canada, Chile, Estonia, France, Korea, Mexico, United Kingdom, Brazil and India, providing in-depth analysis of their political finance mechanisms and challenges in different institutional settings.
Aid alone cannot finance development; bringing in fresh sources of finance is essential. The emergence of a multiplicity of new financing options is good news for developing countries, but it also raises challenges. The authors in this stimulating book assess the changing landscape of international development finance from a global and a developing-country perspective. The result is a vast range of policy implications for donor and recipient alike. In an easily digestible format, the book provides recommendations on innovative policy mechanisms, on the use of both grants and loans in development finance, and on the challenges of managing diverse financial flows at country-level.
Aid alone cannot finance development; bringing in fresh sources of finance is essential. The emergence of a multiplicity of new financing options is good news for developing countries, but it also raises challenges. The authors in this stimulating book assess the changing landscape of international development finance from a global and a developing-country perspective. The result is a vast range of policy implications for donor and recipient alike. In an easily digestible format, the book provides recommendations on innovative policy mechanisms, on the use of both grants and loans in development finance, and on the challenges of managing diverse financial flows at country-level.
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that scale up have long raised policy interest for their extraordinary potential in terms of job creation, innovation, competitiveness and economic growth. Yet, little is known about which firms could effectively become scalers, and what policies could effectively promote SME growth. This report is part of a series aiming to help policy makers unleash scalers’ potential. Building on new evidence from microdata work, it rethinks the nature and scope of scale up policies, suggesting the need for a broader and more cross cutting approach. The report then explores two thematic areas that are relevant for SME scaling up, i.e. SME data governance and their access to ‘scale up’ finance. Based on an international mapping of 369 institutions and 1174 policy initiatives across OECD countries, the analysis shows that SME and entrepreneurship policy is not among the core mandates of many implementing institutions, calling for sound coordination across the board and further mainstreaming of SME growth considerations in both policy areas. Moreover, national policy mixes vary significantly across countries, reflecting different approaches to promoting SME growth and to SME targeting, but also revealing possible policy blind spots.
Ten years into the transition, newly emerging private enterprises in transition economies, usually described as small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the international context, have come to play an increasingly important role as the driving engines of economic growth and employment creation. Accordingly, the policy considerations for developing SMEs are becoming very urgent and important for transition economies, especially through facilitating financial mechanisms for them, as limited availability of financial resources is the largest hindrance to their development.
This publication gathers the proceedings of the Second Workshop on "Financing Newly Emerging Private Enterprises in Transition Economies" which was organised in Paris under the aegis of the OECD’s Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members with the sponsorship of the Japanese Government. This volume contains in-depth studies on various schemes for financing these enterprises, including credit guarantees, leasing, venture capital and capital market operations, as well as public schemes. In addition, it provides detailed and comparative information on the situation of SME development and the policy measures towards it.
The oil and gas industry has some of the best and most cost-effective opportunities to reduce methane emissions. The potential to do so is clear. Some countries and companies have already demonstrated that achieving near-zero emissions from oil and gas operations is technically and economically possible. There are a growing number of initiatives, policies and regulations aiming to reduce emissions globally, and many reductions can be realised while saving money. However, overall progress has been much too slow, despite the record profits that the oil and gas industry saw in 2022. This report looks in detail at the investment requirements to deliver a sharp reduction in oil and gas methane emissions to 2030, and how these could be financed. The analysis is intended to inform discussions in the runup to COP28 and help prompt the necessary actions to accelerate the pace of change.
Access to finance represents one of the most significant challenges for entrepreneurs and for the creation, survival and growth of small businesses. As governments address this challenge, they are running up against a major and longstanding obstacle to policy making: insufficient evidence and data. Better data is needed to understand the financing needs of SMEs and entrepreneurs and to provide the basis for informed institutional and public policy decisions.
This first edition of "Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs: An OECD Scoreboard" represents a major step in addressing this obstacle by establishing a comprehensive international framework for monitoring SMEs’ and entrepreneurs’ access to finance over time. Comprising 18 countries, including Canada, Chile, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States, the Scoreboard presents data for a number of debt, equity and financing framework condition indicators. Taken together, they provide governments and other stakeholders with a tool to understand SMEs’ financing needs, to support the design and evaluation of policy measures and to monitor the implications of financial reforms on SMEs’ access to finance.
Access to finance represents one of the most significant challenges for entrepreneurs and for the creation, survival and growth of small businesses. As governments address this challenge, they are running up against a major and longstanding obstacle to policy making: insufficient evidence and data. Better data is needed to understand the financing needs of SMEs and entrepreneurs and to provide the basis for informed institutional and public policy decisions. The OECD Scoreboard on financing SMEs and entrepreneurs represents a major step in addressing this obstacle by establishing a comprehensive international framework for monitoring SMEs’ and entrepreneurs’ access to finance over time. The Scoreboard presents data for a number of debt, equity and financing framework condition indicators. Taken together, they provide governments and other stakeholders with a tool to understand SMEs’ financing needs, to support the design and evaluation of policy measures and to monitor the implications of financial reforms on SMEs’ access to finance.
This second edition comprises 25 countries, including Canada, Chile, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, the Russian Federation, Serbia, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. It includes an overview of SME financing trends and conditions across participating countries, focusing in particular on the changes which occurred between 2010 and 2011, and of government policy responses intended to improve SMEs’ access to finance. The second edition also includes a Reader's Guide, a thematic focus on Credit Guarantee Schemes and methodological Annexes.
Start-ups and small firms continue to face significant obstacles to fulfilling their potential to innovate, grow and create jobs, particularly when it comes to obtaining access to finance. With its 13 core indicators of debt, equity and general market conditions, complemented by a review of government policy measures, Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs 2014: An OECD Scoreboard documents these financing difficulties and monitors trends in 31 countries, along with government policy responses to deal with these challenges.
This fourth edition monitors SMEs’ and entrepreneurs’ access to finance in 34 countries over the period 2007-13, across an expanded array of indicators, including debt, equity, asset-based finance and framework conditions. These are complemented by an overview of recent developments in public and private initiatives to support SME finance, and a special focus on non-performing loans. The report aims to provide a comprehensive framework for policy makers and other stakeholders to evaluate the financing needs of SMEs.
This report monitors SME and entrepreneur access to finance in 37 countries. It includes indicators of debt, equity, asset-based finance and framework conditions for SME and entrepreneurship finance, complemented by an overview of recent developments in public and private initiatives to support SME finance. Taken together, these indicators form a comprehensive framework for policy makers and other stakeholders to evaluate the financing needs of SMEs.
Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs 2017 provides information on debt, equity, asset-based finance, and framework conditions for SME and entrepreneurship finance, complemented with an overview of recent policy measures to support access to finance in 39 countries. The sixth instalment of this annual publication provides a solid evidence base to improve SME policy making. Almost a decade after the financial crisis, the financing situation of SMEs and entrepreneurs has generally improved in 2015 and the first half of 2016 in most participating countries, and indicates a more favourable business environment. While alternative sources of financing are gaining some traction, SMEs nevertheless remain very reliant on bank lending, making them vulnerable to credit market conditions and the economic climate.
Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs 2018 contributes to filling the knowledge gap in SME finance trends and conditions. This annual publication provides information on debt, equity, asset-based finance, and conditions for SME and entrepreneurship finance, complemented by an overview of recent policy measures to support access to finance. By providing a solid evidence base, the report supports governments in their actions to foster SME access to finance and encourages a culture of policy evaluation.
The 2018 report covers 43 countries world-wide. In addition to the core indicators on SME financing, it provides additional information on recent developments in capital market finance for SMEs, crowdfunding and related activities, and findings of demand-side surveys. It contains a thematic chapter on the evaluation of publicly supported credit guarantee schemes.
Sufficient and affordable access to different sources of finance is crucial to allow SMEs and entrepreneurs to reach their full potential. The 8th edition of the Scoreboard on SME and Entrepreneurship Finance report provides data from 46 countries around the world on debt finance, alternative finance instruments and financing conditions, as well as information on policy initiatives to improve their access to finance.
In 2017, SME bank credit increased at a modest pace in many countries and declined in some others, in the context of broadly positive macroeconomic conditions, improvements in the business environment and accommodative credit conditions. In contrast, volumes were generally up for most other sources of finance relevant for SMEs and entrepreneurs, such as leasing, factoring, online alternative finance, and venture capital investments. At the same time, a growing share of SMEs relied on self-financing for their investment needs and cash flow requirements in 2017.
The thematic chapter of this publication investigates the potential for SMEs to leverage their intangible assets to access external finance, especially debt.
Sufficient and affordable access to different sources of finance is crucial to enable SMEs and entrepreneurs to contribute to inclusive growth. The 9th edition of the Scoreboard on Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs provides data from 48 countries around the world on SME lending, alternative finance instruments and financing conditions, as well as information on policy initiatives to improve SME access to finance.
Lending conditions remained broadly favourable in the run-up to the COVID-19 outbreak, despite some early signals of tightening. Nevertheless, SME bank credit increased only at a modest pace in many countries and declined in some others in 2018. At the same time, the take-up by SMEs of other sources of finance, including leasing and factoring, equity crowdfunding and venture capital investments expanded significantly, suggesting that SMEs are increasingly turning to a combination of instruments.
The thematic chapter provides an overview of the evolution of SME financing policies over the last decade, from the immediate post-crisis period and the early recovery years, to the most recent policy trends.