Ghana
Blockchain is mainstreaming, but the number of blockchain for development use-cases with proven success beyond the pilot stage remain relatively few. This paper outlines key blockchain concepts and implications in order to help policymakers reach realistic conclusions when considering its use. The paper surveys the broad landscape of blockchain for development to identify where the technology can optimise development impact and minimise harm. It subsequently critically examines four successful applications, including the World Food Programme’s Building Blocks, Oxfam’s UnBlocked Cash project, KfW’s TruBudget and Seso Global. As part of the on-going work co-ordinated by the OECD’s Blockchain Policy Centre, this paper asserts that post-COVID-19, Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors and their development partners have a unique opportunity to shape blockchain’s implementation.
This paper uses network analysis to map and characterise live animal trade in West Africa. Building on a database of 42 251 animal movements collected by the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) from 2013-17, it describes the structure of regional livestock trade at the network, trade community and market levels. Despite yearly fluctuations in the volumes and spatial patterns of trade, the paper shows that regional livestock trade operates on well-established trade corridors as animals flow in specific directions. The study also confirms that livestock trade is structured around several national and cross-border groups of markets that exchange more animals than expected by chance. Close to two-thirds of all animals are shipped internationally, indicating that regional animal trade in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is remarkably cross-border. Finally, the paper finds that the hub markets that concentrate the most shipments also handle more animals and trade with more markets. Additionally, peripheral markets have more defined roles as primarily origins or destinations of animal shipments than markets in the core of the network. Of the nine key markets identified, three are close to borders, highlighting the importance of Nigeria as a livestock consumption destination for regional livestock production.
This chapter offers reflections on the goal of universal access, drawing on insights from experience in Ghana, Senegal and Nepal, as a way to help water and sanitation professionals see more clearly the nature of the challenges posed by a goal of universal access in the sector. The costs of providing improved piped municipal water and sanitation services are also examined.
This chapter examines recent trends in emigration from Ghana to the main OECD destination countries. In order to better understand the recent evolution in emigration flows, the chapter first traces the historical context of emigration from Ghana since its independence. The following section examines recent migration flows from Ghana to the main OECD destination countries and analyses the nature of these flows, using data on categories of residence permits issued to Ghanaian nationals. Finally, the last section examines emigration intentions among the Ghanaian population and the main determining factors of the desire to emigrate.
Le processus de rééquilibrage entre secteur public et secteur privé, principal élément des réformes structurelles engagées au Ghana, s'appuie sur une situation économique considérablement améliorée. Les politiques suivies, l'Economic Recovery Programme I (1983-86) et II (1987-89), s'articulent en effet selon un schéma désormais largement consensuel : la recherche de la stabilisation économique puis de l'ajustement structurel. Dans le cas présent, l'auteur s'intéresse aux chances de succès de cette seconde phase, en analysant les composantes d'une des expériences présentées comme l'une des plus réussies du continent africain ...
L’analyse des réactions aux réformes introduites au Ghana semble indiquer que les politiques actuelles auraient des effets bénéfiques disproportionnés sur les différents segments de la population. De même, l’expérience des années 1990 suggère que les déficits budgétaires récurrents pourraient affecter négativement les programmes de réforme et de réduction de la pauvreté. L’objectif de ce document est de se livrer à quelques expériences en faisant appel à des variantes d’un modèle EGC stylisé, afin d’évaluer les effets possibles sur la pauvreté d’une série de transferts de revenues redistributifs sans incidence budgétaire. L’analyse s’appuie sur une matrice de comptabilité sociale (MCS) du Ghana pour l’année 1993, largement modifiée pour l’application qui en est faite ici. Le modèle EGC est un modèle statique du secteur réel et exclut donc les secteurs monétaires et financiers ; il est conçu dans le même esprit que les autres modèles mis au point par le Centre de Développement de ...
This chapter examines the size of the Ghanaian diaspora in the main destination countries, and its evolution since 2000. It provides a socio‑demographic analysis, focusing on age and educational distribution, emphasising differences by sex and across destination countries. For the central destination countries, it provides a snapshot of the geographic distribution of emigrants, and information on the acquisition of nationality. The chapter also presents evidence on the overall emigration rates of the Ghanaian population and its highly educated population towards OECD countries. The analysis systematically compares the Ghanaian diaspora with two reference groups: the foreign-born population living in the OECD area and emigrants from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
The case study in Ghana examines mechanisms for tracking the outcomes of aid-for-trade interventions in the agriculture sector and recommends ways to improve on existing frameworks in order to measure the performance of donor interventions. The study notes that there is considerable co-ordination between the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and development partners present in Ghana. Co-ordination largely takes place during annual joint sector reviews. These also include monitoring and evaluation, and some of the frameworks also incorporate agricultural related targets and performance indicators. Missing from the reviews, however, are discussions about the impact of donor support on the trade performance of the agricultural sector. While there are many donor activities in the agriculture sector, most lack objectives directly related to trade, while the indicators that are being used tend to focus more on domestic outcomes - in particular reducing imports of agricultural products, such as rice, rather than on pursuing an export agenda. The case study suggests that Ghana’s Aid Policy and Strategy, which encompasses measures for monitoring and evaluating aid in general, should be expanded introducing trade objectives and indicators which should prioritise agricultural export diversification, raising export earnings, and increasing the share of processed (value-added) agriculture products.
Resource abundance does not always bring sustained economic growth and development. Moreover, the mining sector generally provides little direct employment in the regions where extraction occurs. In an attempt to derive greater benefits from their resource endowments, and increase linkages with other parts of the economy, some minerals-rich countries have instituted local content and procurement policies (LCPs). The benefits sought include employment generation, supply chain development and technological and knowledge transfers. Measures that aim to increase local content and procurement in the extractive industries are common, including in many OECD countries.
This study examines local content policies in 10 minerals-rich countries and provides some observations about their efficacy and the desirability of their use. A wide range of measures are examined, from industry-wide, mandatory quantitative targets to voluntary initiatives undertaken at the firm level, encompassing diverse policy objectives and implementation strategies. The range of countries covered is broad including OECD countries, developing countries and least developed countries. The study does not recommend a “one size fits all” policy mix but guards against the distortions created by overly prescriptive, mandatory local content requirements.
This chapter analyses Ghanaian emigrants’ insertion in the labour market of destination countries, with a particular focus on the OECD area. It presents the 2015/16 employment status of emigrants aged between 15 and 64 years, with more recent data available for the United States (2017/2019) and Italy (2017/2020), the first and third destination countries in the OECD area. The chapter also analyses the dynamics of their insertion since the 2008 global recession and the 2010 Eurozone debt crisis. It provides an assessment of employment through the variables of sex, education, duration of stay and nationality. Finally, the chapter provides data on over‑qualification rates, occupations and employment sectors.
Illicit trade in goods that displace normally legal goods is an extensive global problem, which carries considerable development risks and losses for developing countries. Focusing on pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and consumer goods (which in itself consists of a broad range of goods), this case study reviews the example of Ghana to illustrate this problem, although it is a challenge afflicting all West African countries.
This paper highlights the magnitude and significance of the problem. It also reveals the actors involved, with a view to identify the drivers and interests behind the trade, and their developmental impacts. Although the case study focuses primarily on three kinds of goods in a single country, the analysis further aims to identify common causal factors that can be extrapolated across the counterfeit, pirated and substandard trade in the wider region with a view to inform the development of prospective policy recommendations.
Illicit financial flows (IFFs) generated by the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sector in West Africa have historically contributed to conflict and instability, although it would be a mistake to classify this issue as a criminal matter, given its links to formal and informal networks and local livelihoods. This study examines IFFs associated with the ASGM sector in Ghana and Liberia and reveals a complex web of informal and illicit activity associated with IFFs, with detrimental consequences for development. It focuses on gold because of its prominence in the West African Region and artisanal small-scale mining (ASM), rather than large-scale mining (LSM). Further, ASMG is largely informal and consequently more vulnerable to exploitation by criminal networks, and plays a prominent role as a local livelihood. This case study is relatively narrow in focus, providing insights into the nature and scope of ASGM activities and their resulting IFFs, and making several observations on those areas where action could be taken in an effort to reduce IFF risks. The study selected Ghana and Liberia as two countries where research could be conducted, and where gold is a major industry.
Immigrant workers contribute to the Ghanaian economy in several ways. They are well integrated in labour markets in terms of employment, although female immigrants often face greater challenges than male immigrants. Even though much of the employment of immigrant workers appears to be demand-driven, immigration may have some displacement effects in particular for native-born women. The contribution of immigrants to the government’s fiscal balance exceeds the contribution of the native-born population on a per capita basis. The overall contribution of immigrants to GDP is estimated at 1.5%. Ghana is aiming to mainstream migration into development policies, and this objective would benefit from stronger labour market information and analysis systems.
How Immigrants Contribute to Ghana’s Economy is the result of a project carried out by the OECD Development Centre and the International Labour Organization, with support from the European Union. The project aimed to analyse several economic impacts – on the labour market, economic growth, and public finance – of immigration in ten partner countries: Argentina, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, the Dominican Republic, Ghana, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Rwanda, South Africa and Thailand. The empirical evidence stems from a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis of secondary, and in some cases primary data sources.
This report contains the 2018 Peer Review Report on the Exchange of Information on Request of Ghana.
This report contains the 2014 “Phase 2: Implementation of the Standards in Practice” Global Forum review of Ghana.
The Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes is the multilateral framework within which work in the area of tax transparency and exchange of information is carried out by over 120 jurisdictions which participate in the work of the Global Forum on an equal footing.
The Global Forum is charged with in-depth monitoring and peer review of the implementation of the standards of transparency and exchange of information for tax purposes. These standards are primarily reflected in the 2002 OECD Model Agreement on Exchange of Information on Tax Matters and its commentary, and in Article 26 of the OECD Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital and its commentary as updated in 2004, which has been incorporated in the UN Model Tax Convention.
The standards provide for international exchange on request of foreseeably relevant information for the administration or enforcement of the domestic tax laws of a requesting party. “Fishing expeditions” are not authorised, but all foreseeably relevant information must be provided, including bank information and information held by fiduciaries, regardless of the existence of a domestic tax interest or the application of a dual criminality standard.
All members of the Global Forum, as well as jurisdictions identified by the Global Forum as relevant to its work, are being reviewed. This process is undertaken in two phases. Phase 1 reviews assess the quality of a jurisdiction’s legal and regulatory framework for the exchange of information, while Phase 2 reviews look at the practical implementation of that framework. Some Global Forum members are undergoing combined – Phase 1 plus Phase 2 – reviews. The ultimate goal is to help jurisdictions to effectively implement the international standards of transparency and exchange of information for tax purposes.
The Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes is the multilateral framework within which work in the area of tax transparency and exchange of information is carried out by over 90 jurisdictions which participate in the work of the Global Forum on an equal footing.
The Global Forum is charged with in-depth monitoring and peer review of the implementation of the standards of transparency and exchange of information for tax purposes. These standards are primarily reflected in the 2002 OECD Model Agreement on Exchange of Information on Tax Matters and its commentary, and in Article 26 of the OECD Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital and its commentary as updated in 2004, which has been incorporated in the UN Model Tax Convention.
The standards provide for international exchange on request of foreseeably relevant information for the administration or enforcement of the domestic tax laws of a requesting party. “Fishing expeditions” are not authorised, but all foreseeably relevant information must be provided, including bank information and information held by fiduciaries, regardless of the existence of a domestic tax interest or the application of a dual criminality standard.
All members of the Global Forum, as well as jurisdictions identified by the Global Forum as relevant to its work, are being reviewed. This process is undertaken in two phases. Phase 1 reviews assess the quality of a jurisdiction’s legal and regulatory framework for the exchange of information, while Phase 2 reviews look at the practical implementation of that framework. Some Global Forum members are undergoing combined – Phase 1 plus Phase 2 – reviews. The ultimate goal is to help jurisdictions to effectively implement the international standards of transparency and exchange of information for tax purposes.
All review reports are published once approved by the Global Forum and they thus represent agreed Global Forum reports.
Unlike case studies that concentrate on a particular SEA, this example seeks to explain how ideas about EIA, SEA and environmental mainstreaming have been progressively developed in Ghana over the last 20 years. By tracing the evolution of environmental assessment processes over an extended period, it is possible to show how significant changes of attitude and understanding have been introduced by SEA and related processes, and to discuss outcomes in environmental governance that are not immediately apparent from examining the performance of individual SEAs.
Ghana’s agricultural sector has two faces. On the one hand, Ghana continues to face food security problems due to stagnating productivity in the food crop sector and undeveloped internal food markets. On the other hand, horticultural exports have been increasing and recent investments in cocoa and pineapple processing can been seen as signs of an emerging modern agricultural sector. The horticultural sector currently receives a lot of attention from donors and the Ghanaian government. The examination of several large donor projects in this sector reveals that donors are increasingly taking a value chain approach and trying to link smallholder farmers to exporters via outgrower schemes. Donors are also making an effort to connect their projects with other ongoing interventions. However, donor approaches vary according to donor preferences, and multi-donor programmes would probably be a better solution. While the current focus of donors and the Ghanaian government in the horticultural sector is welcome, it bears the risk of leaving the north of Ghana, where food crop production and poverty are concentrated, further behind. Food crops should receive more attention not only to resolve Ghana’s food security problem but also to take advantage of growing demand from Ghana’s middle-income class, which provides the opportunity for developing a local food industry.