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Slovak Republic
Socio-economic status may significantly impact students’ participation in education, particularly at levels of education that rely, in many countries, most heavily on private expenditure, such as early childhood education and care and tertiary education. This is less the case in the Slovak Republic: private sources accounted for 15% of total expenditure in pre-primary institutions, slightly lower than the OECD average of 17%. At tertiary level, 29% of expenditure comes from private sources in the Slovak Republic, compared to 30% on average across OECD countries.
Across most OECD countries, socio-economic status influences learning outcomes more than gender and immigrant status. In the Slovak Republic, the proportion of children from the bottom quartile of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) achieving at least PISA level 2 in reading in 2018 was 44% lower than that of children from the top ESCS quartile, a larger share than the OECD average of 29%.
International student mobility at the tertiary level has risen steadily reaching about 12 700 students in the Slovak Republic and representing 9% of tertiary students in 2019. The largest share of foreign tertiary students studying in the Slovak Republic comes from the Czech Republic. Students from low and lower-middle income countries are generally less likely to study abroad. In 2019, they represented 29% of international students in OECD countries, compared to 27% in the Slovak Republic.
Large differences in educational attainment may lead to starker earnings inequality in many countries. In the Slovak Republic, 34% of 25-64 year-old adults with below upper secondary attainment earned at or below half the median earnings in 2019, above the OECD average of 27%.
In the Slovak Republic, 1.9% of students in lower secondary and 0.3% in upper secondary initial education repeated a grade in 2019, compared to 1.9% and 3% respectively on average across OECD countries. Boys are more likely to repeat a grade at lower secondary initial education than girls. In the Slovak Republic, 56% of repeaters at lower secondary level were boys, lower than the OECD average of 61%. At upper secondary level, the share of boys repeating a grade in the Slovak Republic increases to 65%, compared to 57% on average across OECD countries.
Men are more likely than women to pursue a vocational track at upper secondary level in most OECD countries. This is also the case in the Slovak Republic, where 55% of upper secondary vocational graduates in 2019 were men (compared to the OECD average of 55%). Women are generally more likely to graduate from upper secondary general programmes. This is also the case in the Slovak Republic, where women represent 59% of graduates from upper secondary general programmes, compared to 55% on average across OECD countries (Figure 1).
Tertiary education has been expanding in the last decades, and, in 2020, 25-34 year-old women were more likely than men to achieve tertiary education in all OECD countries. In the Slovak Republic, 49% of 25-34 year-old women had a tertiary qualification in 2020 compared to 29% of their male peers, while on average across OECD countries the shares were 52% among young women and 39% among young men.
Gender differences in the distribution of tertiary entrants across fields of study are significant. Women tend to be under-represented in certain fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) across most OECD countries. On average, 26% of new entrants in engineering, manufacturing and construction and 20% in information and communication technologies were women in 2019. In the Slovak Republic, women represented 24% of new entrants in engineering, manufacturing and construction programmes and 13% in information and communication technologies. In contrast, they represented 81% of new entrants to the field of education, a sector traditionally dominated by women. In the Slovak Republic, men represent 22% of teachers across all levels of education, compared to 30% on average across OECD countries.
Young women are less likely to be employed than young men, particularly those with lower levels of education. Only 24% of 25-34 year-old women with below upper secondary attainment were employed in 2020 compared to 46% of men in the Slovak Republic. This gender difference is slightly smaller than the average across OECD countries, where 43% of women and 69% of men with below upper secondary attainment are employed.
In nearly all OECD countries and at all levels of educational attainment, 25-64 year-old women earn less than their male peers: their earnings correspond to 76%-78% of men’s earnings on average across OECD countries. This proportion varies more across educational attainment levels within countries than on average across OECD countries. Compared to other education levels, women with tertiary education in the Slovak Republic have the lowest earnings relative to men with a similar education level, earning 72% as much, while those with below upper secondary education earn 80% as much.
On average across OECD countries with available data, 25-64 year-old women tend to participate slightly more in adult learning than men of the same age. In the Slovak Republic, 45% of women participated in formal and/or non-formal education and training in 2016, compared to 47% of men. Family reasons were reported as barriers to participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training by 48% of women compared to 22% of men.
On average across the OECD, foreign-born adults (25-64 year-olds) account for 22% of all adults with below upper secondary attainment, 14% of those attaining upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment, and 18% of tertiary-educated adults. In the Slovak Republic as in most OECD countries, the share of foreign-born adults among all adults with a given level of educational attainment is the highest among adults with below upper secondary attainment (1%) in 2020.
The likelihood of being employed increases with the level of educational attainment, but foreign-born adults with tertiary attainment generally have lower employment prospects than their native-born peers. On average across OECD countries, 86% of native-born tertiary-educated adults are employed compared to 79% for foreign-born tertiary-educated adults. In the Slovak Republic, among tertiary-educated adults, 83% of native-born adults and 78% of foreign-born adults are employed. Foreign-born adults who arrived in the country at an early age have spent some years in their host country’s education system and gained nationally recognised credentials. As a result, their labour-market outcomes are generally better than that of those who arrived at a later age with a foreign qualification. In the Slovak Republic, however among foreign-born adults with tertiary attainment, 69% of those who arrived by the age of 15 are employed, compared to 83% of those who arrived in the country at age 16 or later.
National level data often hide important regional inequalities in children’s access and participation to education. In general, inequalities across regions tend to widen at non-compulsory levels of education. For example, in the majority of countries, the variation in enrolment rate of 3-5 year-olds is often greater than the variation among 6-14 year-olds. This is the case in the Slovak Republic, where the enrolment rate of 3-5 year-olds varies from 65% in the region of East Slovakia to 86% in the region of West Slovakia whereas the enrolment of 6-14 year-olds varies from 90% to 100% across regions. Similarly, the enrolment rate of 15-19 year-olds varies from 75% to 100% in the Slovak Republic.
Tertiary attainment may vary significantly within a country. In the Slovak Republic, the share of 25-64 year-old adults with tertiary education varies from 22% in the region of West Slovakia to 46% in the region of Bratislava Region, a similar regional variation as the average across OECD countries with available data.
On average across OECD and partner countries with subnational data on labour-force status, there is more regional variation in employment rates among those with below upper secondary education (17 percentage points) than for those with tertiary education (8 percentage points). In the Slovak Republic, there is a difference of 24 percentage points in the employment rate of adults with below upper secondary education between different regions of the country compared to 6 percentage points for tertiary-educated adults.
The proportion of young people who are NEET shows significant subnational as well as national variation across OECD and partner countries. In the Slovak Republic, the difference in the share of 18-24 year-old NEETs between regions with the highest and lowest value is 10 percentage points, compared to 11 percentage points on average across OECD countries.
The spread of COVID-19 has continued to impede access to in-person education in many countries around the world in 2021. By mid-May 2021, 37 OECD and partner countries had experienced periods of full school closure since the start of 2020.
Countries have faced difficult decisions on how to best manage their resources to ensure that students can continue to access quality education in the safest possible conditions and to minimise disruption to learning. Before the pandemic, total public expenditure on primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education in the Slovak Republic reached 2.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, which was lower than the OECD average of 3.2%. About two-thirds of OECD and partner countries reported increases in the funding allocated to primary and secondary schools to help them cope with the crisis in 2020. Compared to 2019, the Slovak Republic reported an increase in the fiscal year education budget for primary and lower secondary general education in 2020.
20 OECD and partner countries, although not the Slovak Republic, stated that the allocation of additional public funds to support the educational response to the pandemic in primary and secondary schools was based on the number of students or classes. At the same time, 16 countries targeted additional funds at socio-economically disadvantaged students as a way to ensure that resources targeted those that needed them the most, though this was not the case in the Slovak Republic.
The impact of the pandemic on the economy has raised concerns about the prospects of young adults, especially those leaving education earlier than others. In the Slovak Republic, the unemployment rate among 25-34 year-olds with below upper secondary attainment was 31.8% in 2020, a decrease of 5 percentage points from the previous year. In comparison, the average youth unemployment rate of 15.1% in 2020 across OECD countries represented an increase of 2 percentage points from 2019 (Figure 2).
At the same time, the number of adults participating in formal and/or non-formal education and training decreased by 27% on average in the OECD between the second quarter of 2019 and the second quarter of 2020 (i.e. during the peak of the first wave of COVID-19 in many OECD countries). In the Slovak Republic, the participation of adults in formal and/or non-formal education and training in this period decreased by 48% in the Slovak Republic.
Despite the impact of the crisis on employment, the share of NEETs among 18-24 year-olds did not greatly increase in most OECD and partner countries during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. On average, the share of 18-24 year-old NEETs in OECD countries rose from 14.4% in 2019 to 16.1% in 2020. In the Slovak Republic, the share of 18-24 year-old NEETs was 12.5% in 2019, which increased to 13.8% in 2020.
Annual expenditure per student on educational institutions provides an indication of the investment countries make on each student. After accounting for public-to-private transfers, public expenditure on primary to tertiary educational institutions per full-time student in the Slovak Republic was USD 6 676 in 2018 (in equivalent USD converted using PPPs for GDP) compared to USD 10 000 on average across OECD countries.
Expenditure on core educational services such as instruction and teaching make up the largest share of education expenditure. However, ancillary services (such as student welfare) and research and development (R&D) activities also influence the level of expenditure per student. In primary to tertiary education, 80% of institutions’ expenditure per student is devoted to core educational services in the Slovak Republic (compared to 89% on average across OECD countries). This share is generally lower at the tertiary level due to expenditure on research and development, including in the Slovak Republic where 62% of total expenditure is devoted to core educational services.
The provision of education across public and private institutions influences the allocation of resources between levels of education and types of institution. In 2018, the Slovak Republic spent USD 7 025 per student at primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education, USD 3 429 lower than the OECD average of USD 10 454. At tertiary level, the Slovak Republic invested USD 12 113 per student, USD 4 952 less than the OECD average. Expenditure per student on public educational institutions is higher than on private institutions on average across OECD countries. This is also the case in the Slovak Republic, where total expenditure on primary to tertiary public institutions amounts to USD 7 940 per student, compared to USD 7 098 on private institutions.
Between 2012 and 2018, expenditure per student from primary to tertiary education increased at an average annual growth rate of 1.6% across OECD countries. In the Slovak Republic, expenditure on educational institutions grew at an average annual rate of 3%, while the number of students fell on average by 1.3% per year over this period. This resulted in an average annual growth rate of 4.4% in expenditure per student over this period.
The Slovak Republic was among the ten OECD countries that spent the lowest proportion of GDP on primary to tertiary educational institutions. In 2018, the Slovak Republic spent 3.7% of GDP on primary to tertiary educational institutions, which is 1.2 percentage points lower than the OECD average. Across levels of education, the Slovak Republic devoted a lower share of GDP than the OECD average at both non-tertiary and tertiary levels (Figure 3).
Compensation of teachers and other staff employed in educational institutions represents the largest share of current expenditure from primary to tertiary education. In 2018, the Slovak Republic allocated 70% of its current expenditure to staff compensation, compared to 74% on average across OECD countries. Staff compensation tends to make up a smaller share of current expenditure on tertiary institutions due to the higher costs of facilities and equipment at this level. In the Slovak Republic, staff compensation represents 61% of current expenditure on tertiary institutions compared to 73% at non-tertiary levels. On average across OECD countries, the share is 68% at tertiary level and 77% at non-tertiary level.
The salaries of school staff, and in particular teachers and school heads, represent the largest single expenditure in formal education. Their salary levels also have an impact on the attractiveness of the teaching profession. In most OECD countries and economies, statutory salaries of teachers (and school heads) in public educational institutions increase with the level of education they teach, and also with experience. On average, statutory salaries of teachers with maximum qualifications at the top of their salary scales (maximum salaries) were between 86% and 91% higher than those of teachers with the minimum qualifications at the start of their career (minimum salaries) at pre-primary (ISCED 02), primary and general lower and upper secondary levels in 2020. In the Slovak Republic, maximum salaries were 61% to 100% higher than minimum salaries at each level of education (Figure 4). However, most teachers were paid between these minimum and maximum salaries.
Teachers’ actual salaries reflect their statutory salaries and additional work-related payments. Average actual salaries also depend on the characteristics of the teaching population such as their age, level of experience and qualification level. In the Slovak Republic, teachers’ average actual salaries (after conversion to USD using PPPs for private consumption) amount to USD 18 937 at the pre-primary level (ISCED 02), USD 24 354 at the primary level, USD 24 354 at the general lower secondary level and USD 25 356 at the general upper secondary level. On average across OECD countries, teachers’ average actual salaries were USD 40 707, USD 45 687, USD 47 988 and USD 51 749 at the pre-primary, primary, lower secondary and upper secondary level respectively (Figure 4).
Teachers’ average actual salaries remained lower than those of tertiary-educated workers in almost all countries, and at almost all levels of education. Teachers’ average actual salaries at pre-primary (ISCED 02), primary and general secondary levels of education were between 81% and 96% of the earnings of tertiary-educated workers on average across OECD countries and economies. In the Slovak Republic, the proportion ranged from 56% to 75% at pre-primary, primary and general secondary levels of education.
The average number of teaching hours per year required of a typical teacher in public educational institutions in OECD countries tends to decrease as the level of education increases: it ranged from 989 hours at pre-primary level (ISCED 02), to 791 hours at primary level, 723 hours at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 685 hours at upper secondary level (general programmes) in 2020. In the Slovak Republic, teachers teach 1 150 hours per year at pre-primary level, 729 hours per year at primary level, 645 hours at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 561 hours at upper secondary level (general programmes).
During their working time, teachers also perform various tasks other than teaching itself such as lesson planning and preparation, marking students’ work and communicating or co-operating with parents or guardians. At the lower secondary level, teachers in the Slovak Republic spend 41% of their statutory working time on teaching, compared to 44% on average among countries with available data.
In primary and secondary education, about 35% of teachers are at least 50 years old on average across OECD countries and may reach retirement age in the next decade, while the size of the school-age population is projected to increase in some countries, putting many governments under pressure to recruit and train new teachers. In 2019, 30% of primary teachers in the Slovak Republic were at least 50 years old, which was slightly lower than the OECD average of 33%. On average across OECD countries, the proportion of teachers aged at least 50 years old increases with higher levels of education taught, to 36% in lower secondary education and 40% in upper secondary education. In the Slovak Republic, this proportion varies from 38% at lower secondary level to 42% at upper secondary level.
References
OECD (2021), Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/69096873-en.
OECD (2021), “Regional education”, OECD Regional Statistics (database), https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/213e806c-en (accessed on 27 July 2021).
OECD (2021), “The state of global education – 18 months into the pandemic”, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1a23bb23-en.
For more information on Education at a Glance 2021 and to access the full set of Indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/b35a14e5-en
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Annex 3 (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2021_Annex3.pdf).
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics: Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications (https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en).
Updated data can be found on line at https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en and by following the StatLinks 2under the tables and charts in the publication.
Data on subnational regions for selected indicators are available in the OECD Regional Statistics (database) (OECD, 2021). When interpreting the results on subnational entities, readers should take into account that the population size of subnational entities can vary widely within countries. For example, regional variation in enrolment may be influenced by students attending school in a different region from their area of residence, particularly at higher levels of education. Also, regional disparities tend to be higher when more subnational entities are used in the analysis.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS:
https://gpseducation.oecd.org/
The data on educational responses during COVID-19 were collected and processed by the OECD based on the Survey on Joint National Responses to COVID-19 School Closures, a collaborative effort conducted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS); the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF); the World Bank; and the OECD.
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries.
This document, as well as any data and any map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
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