Chapter 4. Priority challenges in adult learning requiring co-operation

Current arrangements for raising awareness about adult learning

In Slovenia, public agencies and providers seek to promote and raise awareness of adult learning in various ways, as do some social partners.

The Adult Education Master Plan (Resolucija o nacionalnem programu izobraževanja odraslih v Republiki Sloveniji za obdobje) (ReNPIO) established information provision, counselling and the promotion of adult learning as priority activities for 2013-20. These activities seek to (re)integrate adults into education, especially young and disadvantaged adults. To this end, the ReNPIO suggests free information and counselling activities, new counselling models and programmes, and improved career guidance in adult learning. It also recognises the importance of co-operation between professionals and organisations from different sectors, including social partners, for realising its priorities.

Since 1996, Slovenia’s Lifelong Learning Week has involved representatives of all sectors to promote the value of and opportunities for adult learning on a national scale (Box 4.1).

Lifelong Learning Week has expanded significantly in last two decades in terms of providers, events, publications and visitors (Table 4.1).

The ACS seeks to motivate adults to learn by publicly recognising success stories through its annual awards for adult learning (Priznanja za promocijo učenja in znanja odraslih) (ACS Awards). There are three categories of ACS Awards: individuals; groups; and institutions, businesses or local communities. Awards are given based on various criteria, including extent of personal development, achievements after learning, extent of obstacles overcome, knowledge sharing and contribution to the wider environment. The ACS awards up to ten recipients each year in a public ceremony typically coinciding with the opening of Lifelong Learning Week.

The ACS has developed training and performance indicators to help providers effectively promote their adult-learning programmes. Promotion and Marketing in the Field of Adult Education (Promocija in trženje na področju izobraževanja odraslih) is an 8-hour training programme covering basic marketing approaches in adult learning. Approximately 39 practitioners enrolled in the training in 2018. The ACS’ self-evaluation framework for adult education, POKI (Box 2.10 in Chapter 2), includes quality indicators for general and targeted promotional activities in adult learning. Data on the number of education and training providers using these indicators are not available.

Individual education institutions raise awareness and reach out to prospective learners about their programmes in different ways and to differing degrees. A study involving interviews with seven providers of adult education and training in Slovenia found that none had developed specific outreach activities for under-represented learners, such as unemployed or Roma adults (Ivančič, Špolar and Radovan, 2010[7]). The study found that upper secondary and higher education providers focused their outreach and promotional activities on adults who are willing and able to pay for learning. The LUs took a more proactive and widespread approach to outreach, directly mailing households; advertising on line, in papers and on posters; contacting the human resources departments of employers; and presenting to employers. To reach under-represented groups, LUs liaised with social workers, Universities of the Third Age, local societies, associations, clubs and the Employment Office, and met face-to-face with members of the Roma community. Some LUs, such as the LU in Jesenice, have employed someone from the local migrant community to reach out and promote learning opportunities. Finally, Inter-Company Training Centres (Medpodjetniški izobraževalni centri) (MICs) can play a role in raising the awareness of companies and adults about sector-specific training opportunities.

Slovenia has a well-developed and expanding network of professional guidance counsellors, who play an important role in promoting adult learning. Professional counsellors in Slovenia’s 17 Regional Guidance Centres can help adults identify their learning needs, find relevant programmes and financial support, persist with their programmes, and plan their careers. They focus on assisting adults with low levels of skills, those aged over 50, migrants and Roma. In 2017, approximately 13 400 adults attended individual guidance counselling sessions in Slovenia. With the 2018 Adult Education Act (Zakon o izobraževanju odraslih) (ZIO-1 Act) establishing educational guidance counselling as a public service, the number of regional guidance centres will increase to 34, and public expenditure will increase to EUR 2 million per year. Similarly, career counsellors in the Employment Service of Slovenia’s (Zavod Republike Slovenije za zaposlovanje) (ZRSZ) 12 regional Career Centres provide unemployed and at-risk adults with information and guidance on potential career paths and training opportunities. In 2017, about 20 300 individuals attended meetings with the ZRSZ’s career counsellors.

The Expert Group for Lifelong Career Guidance provides a forum for various actors to co-ordinate Slovenia’s career guidance services. Established in 2008 by the MIZŠ, the group comprises representatives of the University of Ljubljana, the MDDSZ, MIZŠ, ACS, Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for Vocational Education and Training (Center Republike Slovenije za poklicno izobraževanje) (CPI), ZRSZ and the Euroguidance Centre of Slovenia. The expert group’s role is to co-ordinate policies and projects; monitor the implementation of training; provide reports, proposals and advice to policy makers; design a draft national strategy; and oversee the quality systems and annual reporting of members (Hergan et al., 2016[8]).

The Centres for Social Work (Centri za socialno delo) (CSDs) also have an important role in promoting adult learning to the long-term unemployed and adults who are not active in the labour market. In co-ordination with the ZRSZ, professional social activators in Slovenia’s 14 regional CSDs identify inactive adults to participate in short-term (3.5 month) or long-term (11 month) education programmes. The purpose of these programmes is to improve the motivation, social and functional skills of disengaged adults, and support them re-entering the labour market. The project aims to work with 3 000 individuals per year.

As noted in Chapter 2 (Action 3), Slovenia has several online portals that offer adults information on available adult-learning programmes. These include the ACS’ portal Where to Obtain Knowledge? (Kam po znanje?), the ZRSZ’s portals Where and How? (Kam in kako?), e-Advisor (s-Svetovalec), and the CPI’s portal My Choice (Moja izbira).

Schools can also play a role in promoting adult learning by referring parents with low levels of skills to education programmes. We Read and Write Together (Beremo in pišemo skupaj) is a family literacy programme for parents with low levels of basic skills. It seeks to improve parents’ literacy and basic skills in order to refine their social skills, develop a family reading culture, provide motivation for lifelong learning and encourage active citizenship. Teachers can refer parents to LUs to access the programmes. In 2011-13, approximately 1 200 participants enrolled in this programme.

Some social partners explicitly set goals to promote adult learning among their members. For example, the Posavje regional chamber of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia (Gospodarska zbornica Slovenije) (GZS) stipulates awareness raising of training opportunities as one of their main services. At the national level, both the GZS and Chamber of Craft and Small Business of Slovenia (Obrtna zbornica Slovenije) (OZS) provide some training programmes for their members, but do not mention promotion or awareness raising among their functions. The Association of Free Trade Unions of Slovenia (Zveza svobodnih sindikatov Slovenije) (ZSSS) includes the promotion of adult education among its objectives. It seeks to motivate its members to learn by seeking appropriate conditions and recognition for their education, and raising awareness among employers about the benefits of training and among union members about opportunities for formal and non-formal education. On the other hand, the Confederation of Trade Unions 90 (Konfederacija sindikatov 90) does not mention education or training among its priority tasks.

The EU recognises promotion and raising awareness of adult learning as a priority, and has developed associated guidance and tools. The Council Resolution on a Renewed European Agenda for Adult Learning (2011[9]) called upon states to foster greater awareness among adults, employers and social partners of the benefits of adult learning, and make full use of the lifelong learning tools agreed at EU level. The European Commission (EC) has developed various tools to assist member states in promoting adult learning, including a network of national co-ordinators who promote adult learning in their countries, as well as the European Guide on Strategies for Improving Participation in and Awareness of Adult Learning (2012[10]). The objectives of the guide are to 1) show how to make adult learning more popular and more accessible for identified target groups; 2) analyse existing initiatives already carried out in terms of awareness raising in the field of adult education; and 3) provide recommendations for future activities and propose which existing strategies should be used.

Opportunities to improve co-operation on awareness raising

Slovenia has a relatively well-developed system for raising awareness about adult-learning opportunities and benefits. The Lifelong Learning Week has been internationally recognised as a good practice, and the ZIO-1 Act expanded publicly funded guidance and counselling services for potential adult learners.

However, several participants in this project reported that awareness-raising efforts for adult learning currently lack widespread cross-sectoral support. The ACS, MIZŠ and MDDSZ services (guidance counsellors, LUs and ZRSZ offices) largely drive these efforts. Participants agreed that all sectors should share responsibility for promoting and raising awareness of adult learning and do more to co-ordinate their efforts.

There is a particular need to raise awareness of the benefits of learning among unemployed and inactive adults in Slovenia, as well as small enterprises. The gap in participation between employed and unemployed or inactive adults in Slovenia widened between 2007 and 2016 (Figure 1.3 in Chapter 1). A relatively high share of the CVT sponsored by small enterprises (41%) consists of “obligatory courses on health and safety at work” (Eurostat, 2018[3]). It is important that such training meets the learning needs of adults and the skills needs of enterprises.

Data from the EC’s Adult Education Survey support the notion that various actors and media have a role in raising awareness about adult learning in Slovenia. In 2016, about 56% of adults in Slovenia reported that they had searched for information on formal and non-formal education and training opportunities. This was higher than all EU countries except Luxembourg and Denmark (Eurostat, 2018[1]). According to the latest data (2011), Slovenian adults draw on a wide range of sources for information on adult-learning opportunities (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1. Sources adults use for information on learning opportunities (2011)

Formal and non-formal education and training, Slovenia and EU

Source: Eurostat (2018[1]), Distribution of sources to look for information on learning possibilities, Adult Education Survey, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database (accessed on 23 October 2018).

 StatLink https://doi.org/10.1787/888933858487

There are opportunities for several actors and sources to play a more effective role in raising awareness and motivating adults to learn in Slovenia.

Examples of good practice awareness raising for adult learning

In Croatia, the Agency for VET and Adult Education led the development of a Strategic Framework for Promotion of Lifelong Learning, which establishes communication plans and promotional activities targeted to different groups of adults (Box 4.3).

In the United Kingdom, UnionLearn of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) raises awareness of the importance of adult learning and promotes its adult-learning services and funds to affiliated unions and workers (Box 4.4).

Recommended Action 7: Improving co-operation on awareness raising

In light of these current arrangements, challenges and good practices, employers and chambers, trade unions, providers and government agencies could better co-ordinate their efforts to motivate more adults to learn and employers to invest in training.

Current arrangements for funding adult learning

Nine ministries reported expenditure on adult-learning related programmes in Slovenia’s 2018 Annual Plan for the Adult Education Master Plan (Letni program izobraževanja odraslih v Republiki Sloveniji) (LPIO) (2017[24]), totalling EUR 82.7 million. In total, over half of this expenditure (57%) is sourced from the European Social Funds (ESF) (Table 4.2).

While not currently included in the action plan, the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology (Ministrstvo za gospodarski razvoj in tehnologijo) (MGRT) also funds several programmes that include adult learning, such as Slovenske poslovne točke and entrepreneurship training for highly educated unemployed women.

Central government funding of adult learning has fluctuated considerably since 2005, reflecting variations in both national and ESF funding (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2. Annual expenditure on adult learning, MIZŠ and MDDSZ (2005-17)

Note: The MIZŠ and MDDSZ accounted for 68% of central government funding of adult learning in 2018.

Source: MIZŠ (2018[25]), Adult education: LPIOs (2005-2017), www.mizs.gov.si/delovna_podrocja/direktorat_za_srednje_in_visje_solstvo_ter_izobrazevanje_odraslih/izobrazevanje_odraslih/.

 StatLink https://doi.org/10.1787/888933858506

The amount and continuity of public expenditure on adult learning in Slovenia differs depending on the form and level of education. Public funding of adult learning is highly concentrated in non-formal, predominately job-related education and training (Table 4.3). Public funding of adult learning is largely project (ESF) based, available in some periods and not in others, but this differs across types of learning (Annex Table 4.A.1). For example, permanent public funding is available to cover the full, upfront costs of second-chance basic education (ISCED 1-2). However, public funding is largely project-based and occasionally available for second-chance secondary education (ISCED 3), and rarely available for tertiary education and training (currently only ISCED 5). Most major publicly funded programmes for non-formal education and training are project (ESF) based and funded.

Many of Slovenia’s 212 municipalities fund adult education programmes, although this varies considerably between municipalities (Table 4.4).

Relatively limited data are available on businesses’ expenditure on adult learning in Slovenia. The available data suggest that enterprises in Slovenia’s industry (manufacturing) sector, and in the information and communication, financial and insurance services sectors spend a relatively large amount on CVT. In contrast, those in the construction sector spend relatively little (Figure 4.3). Overall, Slovenian enterprises spend EUR 688 on CVT per employed person, above the EU average of EUR 585 (adjusted for purchasing power parity) (Eurostat, 2018[3]).

Figure 4.3. Business expenditure on continuing vocational training, by economic activity (2015)

Percentage of total labour cost of all enterprises

Note: The CVT Survey includes all NACE Rev. 2 economic activities except agriculture, forestry and fishing (A); and public administration, defence, education, human health and social work activities (O-Q).

Source: Eurostat (2018[3]), Cost of CVT courses by type and NACE Rev. 2 activity, Continuing Vocational Training Survey, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database (accessed on 23 October 2018).

 StatLink https://doi.org/10.1787/888933858525

Slovenia’s Employment Relationship Act (2013) provides that employer support for adult education and training be specified in a contract or collective agreement. A relatively high share of employees in Slovenia are covered by collective agreements: 65%, compared to only 33% across the OECD in 2013, although this share has steadily declined from 100% in 2005, when membership of an employers’ association was made voluntary (OECD, 2017[14]). Furthermore, the generosity of provisions for workers’ education and training differs considerably between agreements (Table 4.5).

Slovenia does not collect data on individuals’ expenditure on adult learning. While the SURS’ 3-yearly household survey (Anketa o porabi v gospodinjstvih) asks respondents how much they spend on primary, secondary, tertiary and “other” education, it is not possible to reliably isolate expenditure on adult education. The government should expand its adult-learning data collection (Action 3).

Some government agencies enter co-funding arrangements with employers when implementing specific adult-learning programmes. For example, the MDDSZ funds 50-70% of the training and other services delivered by KOCs, with participating employers funding the rest. Under the public tender for co-financing informal education and training of employees, the JŠRIP funds 70% of employees’ non-formal education and training costs, up to a specified limit (Table 4.7).

Sectoral education and training funds are now uncommon in Slovenia. Until 2008, the collective agreement of the national Chamber of Craft and Small Business of Slovenia (Obrtno-podjetniška zbornica Slovenije) required members to contribute 1% of the minimum wage per employee to an education fund. Employers were entitled to reimbursement for education and training expenses as specified by the collective agreement. The collective agreement no longer establishes a national education fund, but allows members of regional chambers to establish their own funds. As a result, four regional chambers established the Foundation for Employee Training (Zavod za izobraževanje delavcev) which covers businesses in approximately 30 municipalities around Ljubljana. The Education Fund Maribor (Sklad za izobraževanje Maribor) was established by four regional chambers, but is expected to be closed in 2019.

As in many EU countries, the system for ministries and adult-learning providers to access EU funds is rather complex. It is regulated by several EU and national laws, and involves different managing authorities and bodies: the Government Office for Development and European Cohesion Policy (Služba Vlade Republike Slovenije za razvoj in evropsko kohezijsko politiko) (SVRK) is the managing authority while individual ministries are intermediate bodies. Two national manuals and two national guidelines, as well instructions provided by the individual ministries, seek to outline this process. For the programme period 2014-20, the process broadly involved:

• At the EU level, the EU cohesion budget and strategic orientations for EU cohesion policy are formulated.

• At the national level, the SVRK (as the managing authority) prepares a partnership agreement in co-operation with other ministries and stakeholders.

• The SVRK co-ordinates and confirms the Operational Programme for the Implementation of the EU Cohesion Policy with the EC (October-December 2014), which forms the basis for ministries to prepare individual project proposals as intermediate bodies.

• Ministries co-ordinate and confirm individual project proposals with the SVRK, as the managing authority responsible for the compliance of the projects with provisions in EU and national legislative and strategic documents.

• Ministries release public tenders and select providers.

• During the implementation of projects, intermediate bodies or the Budget Supervision Office will conduct several content, administrative and financial audits, and contractors submit a substantive and financial (intermediate and financial) report on the progress of the project.

• Ministries review contractors’ reports and, once satisfied, pay the contractors. Audits of the project may be conducted after completion.

Opportunities to improve co-operation on funding of adult learning

There are a number of strengths and good practices in the way adult learning is funded in Slovenia. A large number of ministries (10) fund adult-learning related programmes, covering the sectors and groups with which they work most closely. Second-chance basic education (ISCED 1-2), various basic skills programmes and guidance services are established as public services and fully publicly funded. In 2018, public expenditure on adult learning will reach its highest level since at least 2005. Many municipalities are funding adult-learning services. The share of Slovenian enterprises funding CVT for their employees has risen over the last decade, and is relatively high by international standards. Overall, Slovenian enterprises spend considerably more on CVT than those across the EU on average. And there are examples of co-funding between government and employers on certain adult-learning related programmes.

However, the representatives of ministries and stakeholders participating in this project stated that government, employers and individuals need to fund adult learning more effectively and efficiently. This means better sharing the costs of learning, ensuring funding is sustainable, and better targeting funding to where it will yield the highest overall returns for individuals, enterprises and society.

Several participants in this project questioned whether the total amount of funding for adult learning in Slovenia is sufficient. The relationship between funding and participation is not straightforward in the countries with available data on adult-learning funding (Box 4.5). However, a threshold level of funding for adult learning is important to make the system viable, and enhance both access and quality.

Total public funding of adult learning in Slovenia for 2018 (EUR 82 million) equates to approximately EUR 210 per low-skilled adult, or EUR 70 per adult (Table 4.6).

Funding needs to be sufficient to support low-skilled adults to develop their skills. About 50 000 (12%) low-skilled adults in Slovenia reported that although they wanted to participate in formal or non-formal education, they had been prevented from doing so. Cost or lack of financing is the barrier most frequently cited by low-skilled adults in Slovenia, more frequently than in the OECD overall (OECD, 2017[11]). It is essential to target funding to the adults who need it most, especially the low-skilled and unemployed. It is also essential that the government systematically evaluates the outcomes being achieved by publicly funded programmes and providers, in order to allocate funding more effectively over time (Action 3).

The instability of public funding for adult learning in Slovenia threatens the sector’s ability to achieve national goals for adult learning. Overall, participation in adult learning and public expenditure on it have followed a similar profile in Slovenia over the last decade (Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1 and Figure 4.2), highlighting the role of public funding in supporting participation. For the MDDSZ and the MIZŠ, which account for almost 70% of public expenditure on adult learning, total expenditure has ranged from EUR 45.5 million in 2011 down to EUR 15.5 million in 2016 (Figure 4.2). The largest variations have been in MDDSZ funding for training-related ALMPs. This is a concern given the link between ALMP expenditure and participation by disadvantaged adults (Box 4.5). Indeed, in Slovenia, participation in learning by unemployed adults has declined over the last decade (Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1). Furthermore, several representatives of adult-learning providers involved in this project reported that funding volatility has resulted in substantial staff redundancies and programme reductions in years of low funding. They saw this as a threat to the long-term development and performance of the adult-learning sector.

Low-educated adults typically do not receive public funding to complete their upper secondary education (vocational or general), which hinders learning of this form. In 2016, only 12.7% of adults (25-64 year-olds) in Slovenia had not attained an upper secondary education or higher, well below the OECD average of 21.6% (OECD, 2017[31]). For the few who do not have a basic school education (ISCED 2), completing it is a legally guaranteed right and is free of charge. However, for those who wish to complete an upper secondary education (ISCED 3), public funding is only sometimes available, and then only as a reimbursement. Several participants in this project stated that adults are often not aware of this funding, and many do not access it because they cannot afford the upfront costs.

Slovenia’s adult-learning system is highly reliant on the ESF. In Slovenia’s 2018 LPIO, 57% of total adult-learning expenditure of the nine ministries is EU funded. EU funding accounts for as much as 77% of MDDSZ expenditure and 72% of MIZŠ expenditure. Reliance on the ESF has drawbacks (OECD, 2018[29]).

First, EU funding may fall in the future, as the EU reconsiders its priorities in a context of increased demands, from migration to security and defence. In addition, the EU budget will be reduced by the United Kingdom’s departure (European Commission, 2017[32]). As of May 2018, the EC’s proposal for the “ESF+” for 2021-27 is a total budget of EUR 89.7 billion (constant prices, up from EUR 86.4 billion in 2014-20) (Lecerf, 2018[33]). However, the proposed ESF+ would have a broader scope of issues to cover than the current one (including migrants and social integration). The funding available for adult learning in Slovenia is yet to be negotiated.

Second, as EU structural funds are time limited and distributed through public tenders, gaps can open up in the provision of learning opportunities in between programming periods, or when policy changes occur and require public authorities to re-apply for EU funds and launch public tenders. Some ministries stated that this has contributed to significant gaps in provision, lasting 1-2 years at the beginning of the operational periods (2007 onwards and 2014 onwards). For example, the MIZŠ’ first education programmes for the operational period 2014-20 did not start until the beginning of 2016, and contributed to the staff reductions in the adult-learning sector noted earlier.

On the other hand, the reliance on EU funding brings with it pressure for Slovenia to meet the EC’s growing expectations of evaluation and accountability in adult learning. A comprehensive outcomes evaluation framework (Action 3) is essential in this regard.

Several participants in this project stated that administrative complexity associated with Slovenia’s tender- and project-based approach to funding adult learning has also contributed to project delays and gaps in service provision. Some ministries (as intermediate bodies) cited complex EU and national processes for accessing EU funds and distributing it via tenders, referencing Slovenia’s lengthy national manuals and guidelines. Some representatives from the local level also noted the complexity of tendering for service contracts, and cited a lack of contracting skills at the local level (see Actions 4 and 5). They also stated that the timing of national tenders is unpredictable, and often not aligned with municipalities’ budget cycles. As a result, municipalities, LUs and others are sometimes precluded from accessing funds and delivering services to their communities. The EC proposes to simplify the management and payment of funds and reduce the number of controls and audits for the ESF+ in order to reduce administrative burden (European Commission, 2018[34]). The SVRK is seeking to develop measures to reduce the administrative burden for beneficiaries in the partnership agreement.

While many municipalities fund adult education, some are lagging behind. Funding of adult education varies considerably by municipality, and some municipalities provide no funding at all (Table 4.4). This may perpetuate regional disparities not only in adult-learning access and participation, but in economic and social development. Lagging municipalities should develop Adult Education Annual Plans, unilaterally or jointly with neighbouring municipalities, and commit funding to support adult learning.

Social dialogue and collective agreements have not ensured employers in different sectors and of all sizes are effectively investing in the skills of working adults. At the national level, the Economic and Social Council (Ekonomsko-socialni svet) (ESS) rarely discusses adult skills and learning-related policy (see Action 7), and has not specifically discussed cross-sectoral funding mechanisms. At the sectoral level, some collective agreements – the Paper and Paper-converting Industry, Crafts and Entrepreneurship, Construction, Public Utility Services, Electricity Industry, etc. – have only limited provisions for supporting education and training for workers (Table 4.5). Employers in some sectors – construction, and trade, transport, accommodation and food services – spend relatively little on CVT by national and/or international standards (Figure 4.3). As such, many low-skilled workers in these sectors are not benefiting from employer-sponsored continuing vocational training.

As the coverage of collective agreements continues to decline, and new forms of non-standard work arise, social partners and government will need to find new ways to support education and training for different sectors, enterprises and workers.

Slovenia lacks a systematic approach for government, employers and individuals to appropriately share the costs of skills development. There is co-funding between government and employers, but it is ad hoc and programme dependent. Sectoral training funds are rare in Slovenia, and the few that remain do not receive contributions from public sources. One Slovenian study (Drofenik, 2013[35]) which conducted inter-ministerial and cross-sectoral focus groups found general support for sectoral training funds, and noted the importance of having social partners leading the design of these funds.

A more comprehensive, shared and sustainable financing mix for adult learning, with more targeted support for those adults, and enterprises, which stand to benefit most from training but lack the capacity to pay, should be a priority for Slovenia. There are a range of comprehensive financing measures that Slovenia could consider to support concerted action between multiple stakeholders of adult learning.

Examples of good practice in sharing the costs of adult learning

There are a small number of promising examples of co-financing of adult-learning programmes in Slovenia (Table 4.7). The KOC programme has provided human resources and training support to employers, and is co-funded by the JŠRIP and the participating employers. The experience has shown that involving employers in the design/delivery of these programmes is important to encourage co-financing. The Non-formal Education and Training of Employees programme is co-funded by JŠRIP and participating employees.

Several countries provide targeted support to adults wishing to complete their upper secondary education. As of 2015, the Flemish Community of Belgium, Denmark, Spain and Sweden had financial schemes specifically aimed at supporting low-educated adults wishing to undertake upper secondary education. These targeted co-funding measures mainly take the form of specific grants and allowances, but also include training vouchers or paid training leave (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015[38]). In Sweden, second-chance upper secondary education is offered free of charge. Finland goes even further, covering not just tuition costs but the foregone earnings of adults participating in formal education. Its Adult Education Allowance is publicly funded and replaces the foregone earnings of employees and self-employed persons who decide to pursue vocational studies. To be eligible for the allowance, the applicant must participate in studies leading to a degree, or in vocational or continuing education organised by a Finnish educational institution under public supervision.

Various models exist to establish cost-sharing approaches between government, employers and individuals (OECD, 2018[29]). In Norway, for example, funding responsibility is based on who is expected to benefit from the learning (Box 4.6). This is complemented by active policy efforts to enhance the quality of all adult-learning activity, including non-formal learning.

Public funding can be used to leverage private funding, especially from social partners (OECD, 2018[29]). Such mechanisms can take various forms, including agreements between government and social partners that contain both funding commitments and objectives. Examples from France and the Netherlands featured in a recent OECD review of financial incentives (2017, pp. 94-95[22]):

• In France, the Employment and Skills Development Actions programme aims to help employers solve sectoral skills pressures. It provides government funding for specific skills development projects, which are then designed and implemented by social partners.

  To implement this programme, a framework agreement is signed between the government and an employer organisation to make funding available for various training programmes. The amount of funding is negotiable and depends on the nature of the planned interventions, the size of the employers involved, the degree of disadvantage of the groups targeted and the extent of the co-financing from employers.

• In the Netherlands, Sector Plans are temporary plans to help overcome specific education and training challenges in certain sectors or regions, such as a mismatch between the demand for and supply of labour. The social partners are heavily involved in drafting and implementing these plans, and contribute a substantial share of the funding, but the state covers up to 50% of the total cost for a period of up to 24 months (36 months in the case of work-based training or work-based qualifications, a specific type of vocational training.)

Recommended Action 8: Improve co-operation on funding adult learning

In light of these current arrangements, challenges and good practices, the central government, municipalities, employers, social partners and individuals could improve their co-operation on funding adult learning effectively and efficiently. They can do this by taking the following actions.