Chapter 1. School education in the Czech Republic1

Economic growth has returned, but the recession impacted the young

Prior to the international financial crisis, the annual growth rate in the Czech economy was above OECD average levels. However, the Czech Republic is one of the OECD countries where the international financial crisis had the greatest impact on economic growth. Between 2007 and 2009 growth in real Growth Domestic Product (GDP) declined by ten percentage points (Figure 1.1). The main factor behind economic contractions was weak domestic demand, but slowing export market growth also played a role (OECD, 2014a). At the start of the economic recovery in mid-2013 GDP had fallen by nearly 4% below its pre‐crisis peak (OECD, 2014a). Economic growth picked up strongly in 2015 (OECD, 2016) and is predicted to continue in 2016 (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. Recent and projected growth in real GDP (%)

Note: Figure shows projected growth in real GDP in 2015 and 2016.

Source: OECD (2015a), OECD Employment Outlook 2015, https://doi.org/10.1787/empl_outlook-2015-en.

The unemployment rate is lower than on average in the OECD (Table 1.1). But unemployment rates vary significantly among Czech regions, from 3.3% in Prague to over 11.4% in the Ústi region (Figure 1.A1.3). The international financial crisis impacted the Czech labour market. Relative to the OECD area, employment growth has slowed more in the Czech Republic and was negative in 2009, 2010 and 2011 (OECD, 2015a, Table 1.A1.1). Notably, the youth unemployment rate has increased significantly and is now above the OECD average (Table 1.1). In general, youth were hit hardest by the recession in OECD countries. The Czech youth unemployment rate remains lower than on average in OECD members within the European Union (EU) (22.2% in 2014) (Eurostat, 2015).

Poverty rates are much lower in the Czech Republic compared to in the OECD on average (Table 1.1). While they increased following the crisis (OECD, 2015b, Figure 3.6), they are now just below pre-crisis levels (Table 1.1). Poverty rates for Czech children are relatively high and this is a growing concern in OECD countries generally (Table 1.1).

As in other OECD countries, wage restraint helped to limit employment losses during the recession (Table 1.1), however, in the Czech Republic there was a real decline in wages which has contributed to economic hardship, especially for those on lower incomes (OECD, 2015a). Notably, following the crisis the minimum wage relative to the median national wage has decreased by five percentage points. Compared to both median and average national wages, the minimum wage in the Czech Republic is the lowest in the OECD (OECD, 2015a, Figure 1.11). The working hours required to escape poverty on a minimum wage are unrealistic for a lone parent; for two-parent households on a minimum wage both parents would need to work to ensure that children do not grow up in poverty (OECD, 2015a). Also, there are indicators that work has become more precarious with one in ten Czech workers now in temporary work (this represents a 25% increase between 2007 and 2014 (OECD, 2015a, Figure 1.7).

Fourteen self-governing regions with a large number of self-governing municipalities

In 2002, there was a significant reform of public administration in the Czech Republic when fourteen self-governing regions were established, including Prague the capital city. This move away from a centralised governance structure notably gave the 14 regions autonomy to govern their own education system. Four of the Czech regions are home to nearly half (47%) of the Czech population: Prague, Central Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia and South Moravia (Table 1.2). The Czech regions mainly operate schools providing upper secondary education.

There are over 6 000 self-governing municipalities in the Czech Republic, of which only 453 are urban municipalities (Table 1.2). Among these, there are five “cities”, that is, municipalities with over 1 million inhabitants: Prague, Brno, Ostrava, Plzen and Liberec. The vast majority of Czech municipalities, therefore, are “rural”, having less than 3 000 inhabitants. Half of the total municipalities in the Czech Republic are concentrated in four regions: the Central Bohemian region (18%), the Vysocina region (11%), the South Moravian region (11%) and South Bohemian region (10%). Municipalities operate pre-school and basic schools (primary and lower secondary education), although not all Czech municipalities have a school (see Chapter 2).

An ageing population with low levels of migration

The Czech Republic has a population of 10.5 million (Table 1.2). As in a number of OECD countries, the Czech population is ageing. Between 1990 and 2015, the Czech population aged 15 to 64 grew by 2.6%, but the Czech population aged 65 or older grew by 47%, while at the same time the population aged 15 years or younger shrank by 28%.2 The decline in the school age population has been steep (see Figure 1.3). Ageing populations are a common challenge in the European Union. By 2030, the old-age dependency ratio (65 years or older / population aged 15 to 64) in the Czech Republic is predicted to be 35, that is ten percentage points higher than the 2013 ratio (European Commission, 2015a, Table 1.1.14). While this would remain just below the EU average, these population projections indicate significant pressures on securing funding for education in the future, given increased needs for pension funding. In 2011, the Czech Republic spent 8.9% of GDP on public pensions, which is above the OECD average of 7.9% (OECD, 2015c). The Czech Republic is gradually raising the age of retirement (as are other OECD countries) to 66 years, with steeper increases for women so as to level out the retirement ages for men and women. Currently, men retire at age 62 years and 8 months and women at age 61 years and 4 months (OECD, 2015c).

Birth rates were low in the early 2000s, but increased considerably between 2005 and 2010; the number of live births has been relatively stable since 2011 and stands at 109 860 in 2014 (Czech Statistical Office, 2015, Table 4.10). Population growth between 2003 and 2012 has been driven by migration (Table 1.3). However, the Czech population remains ethnically very homogenous. Among OECD countries, the Czech Republic has one of the lowest proportions of foreign-born population, although since 2000 this increased significantly and stood at 7.0% in 2013 (OECD, 2015d, Figure 1.11). There are less than half a million foreigners with resident permits (4.1% of the population in 2013) (OECD, 2015d). The proportion of foreign residents with permanent residence has been steadily increasing since 2010 and in 2014 stands at 55%, that is, a quarter of a million permanent residents (Czech Statistical Office, 2015, Table 4.21). Between 2003 and 2012, the largest inflows of migrants have been from the Slovak Republic, the Ukraine and Vietnam. These three nationalities made up 57% of foreign residents in the Czech Republic (OECD, 2015d). In 2013, migrants from the Slovak Republic were the most numerous, at the same time the largest outflows were Ukrainian nationals (a net outflow of 7 000 Ukrainians in 2013). Bussolo, Koettl and Sinnott (2015) estimate the need for a net migration of 4.6 per 1 000 habitants between 2015 and 2025 to meet the population replacement rate. This is much higher than the net migration over recent years (Table 1.3).

In 2013/14, migrants made up less than 2% of the school population (MŠMT, forthcoming). The proportion of migrants in the PISA 2003 sample was 1.3% and in the PISA 2012 sample was 3.2%. In both surveys there was a clear performance disadvantage for migrant students, but this was not as pronounced as in the OECD on average (OECD, 2013a, Table II.3.4b). A closer look at the performance of the three major migrant groups shows above average performance for students from Vietnam and below average performance for students from the Slovak Republic and the Ukraine (OECD, 2013a, Table II.3.11).

Increase in educational expenditure since 2005, but investment in schooling remains comparatively low

Compared to other OECD countries, the Czech Republic has more limited potential resources available for education as indicated by its comparatively low national income (in 2012, per capita Gross Domestic Product [GDP] was USD 25 364 compared to USD 33 732 on average in the OECD) (Figure 1.2). Contrary to in the OECD on average, since 2000 the Czech Republic has gradually increased public expenditure on education as a percentage of total public expenditure (from 8.0% to 8.9%; compared to a decrease from 11.8% to 11.6% on average) (OECD, 2015e, Table B4.2). Over the same period, public expenditure has also increased as a percentage of GDP (from 3.2% to 3.7%).

Between 2005 and 2012, expenditure at the primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary levels increased by 14%, that is, at exactly the same pace as in the OECD on average (OECD, 2015e, Table B1.5a). However, due to the decline of 15% in the Czech school population over the same period (see also Figure 1.3), expenditure per student increased by 34% – a bigger increase than in the OECD on average (21%) (OECD, 2015e, Table B1.5a). A far greater increase occurred in expenditure per student at the tertiary level and this increased at a greater rate than in the OECD on average (33% increase in the Czech Republic; 11% in the OECD on average) (OECD, 2015e). This is reflected in the indicator of expenditure as a percentage of GDP: since 2005 expenditure at the primary and secondary level had slightly decreased, but in 2012 was back at the 2005 level (2.8%); in contrast, expenditure at the tertiary level has steadily increased from 1.0% of GDP to 1.4% in 2012 (OECD, 2015e, Table B2.2).

Compared to the OECD on average, expenditure per student at the primary level is particularly low (Table 1.4). For primary and lower secondary education, expenditure on educational institutions relative to GDP is 0.7 percentage points lower than on average in the OECD. Cumulative expenditure per student (aged 6 to 15) is among the lowest in the OECD (USD 54 519 compared to USD 83 382 on average) (Figure 1.2). Based on these indicators as well as the comparatively smaller proportion of the Czech adult population educated to the tertiary level, the OECD (2014a) classes the Czech Republic among the OECD countries with the most challenging demographic, social and economic contexts for compulsory education. Other OECD countries in this group include other Central European countries Hungary, Poland and the Slovak Republic, and also Chile, Mexico, Portugal and Turkey.

Figure 1.2. Comparatively low national income and investment in schooling

Note: Reference year is 2010.

Source: OECD (2014b), PISA 2012 Results: What Students Know and Can Do (Volume I, Revised edition, February 2014): Student Performance in Mathematics, Reading and Science, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264208780-en, Table 1.2.27.

Indicators of low levels of trust in society and in the government

According to the results of various opinion surveys, there appears to be a generally low level of trust in Czech society. For example: results from a Pew Research Centre survey in 2007 revealed around 60% of individuals surveyed did not agree with the statement “Most people in this society are trustworthy” (Cerna, 2014, Figure A.9); also, Czech adults participating in the OECD Survey of Adult Skills reported comparatively low levels of interpersonal trust (e.g. OECD, 2014c, Chart A8.4). There also appears to be a growing lack of trust in the Czech government: results from the International Social Survey Programme point to a deterioration in the level of trust in government administrators (civil servants) in the Czech Republic between 1996 and 2006 (Cerna, 2014, Figure A.8); and results of the Gallup World Poll indicate that the international financial crisis has further fuelled the perception that the Czech government is corrupt (OECD, 2014d, Figure 7.9). According to Guasti et al. (2014) there is strong government rhetoric on the need to tackle corruption which is a problem on all political sides and both the Czech media and police play an active role in exposing political corruption.

However, there appears to be greater trust in the education system. According to results of the Gallup World Poll, just over 60% of individuals surveyed in the Czech Republic reported having confidence in the education system in both 2006 and 2012, which is similar to the average among participating countries (Cerna, 2014, Figure 2).3 However, in the Strategy for Education Policy of the Czech Republic until 2020 (hereafter “Strategy 2020”), it is stated that: uncertainty over what policy moves would be taken by the ministry and other key policy makers has intensified a growing level of uncertainty in the education system; and mutual trust between the various stakeholders in education has been diminishing (MŠMT, n.d.).

Basic education (compulsory school education: primary and lower secondary education)

Czech children must attend school for a period of nine years. Compulsory school attendance commences at the beginning of the school year following the day a child turns six years old, unless deferment is granted.

Secondary education (non-compulsory education: upper secondary education)

“Secondary education” comprises an offer of different educational programmes, on completion of which the majority of students acquire a qualification internationally equivalent to an upper secondary qualification (ISCED 3). Studying from the typical age of 15 and in different school types, students may acquire:

• “Secondary education” (two-year programmes which do not require a certificate of completion, this is actually classified as ISCED 2). In 2013, 0.4% of students in secondary schools were enrolled in such programmes (MŠMT, forthcoming). These are offered by practical schools and are geared towards entering the job market. Students are typically aged 15 to 16.

• “Secondary education with a certificate of apprenticeship” (two- or three-year programmes). In 2013, 21.8% of students in secondary schools were enrolled in such programmes (MŠMT, forthcoming). These are offered by vocational secondary schools and are mainly geared towards preparing students for access to the labour market, but can also lead to further study. Students are typically aged 15 to 17 when following these programmes.

• Or “secondary education with a general certificate of education” (four-year programmes). In 2013, 71.9% of students in secondary schools were enrolled in such programmes (MŠMT, forthcoming). Some students in conservatoires would also study toward this qualification.

  • Gymnasia and lyceums: These offer students various branches of study programmes and are mainly geared towards preparing students for further education and study. Such programmes and schools are regarded as prestigious. Students are typically aged 15 to 18 when following these programmes, but may enrol in a gymnasium at an earlier age (age 11 or 13).

  • Technical secondary schools: These offer students four-year technical secondary programmes and are mainly geared towards preparing students for higher vocational education and study. Such programmes and schools are regarded as prestigious. Students are typically aged 15 to 18 when following these programmes.

  • Conservatoires: These develop skills in basic and basic artistic education, and prepare students for the performance of exacting artistic and pedagogical activities in the branches of education: music, dance, singing and dramatic art. In 2013, 0.1% of students in secondary education were enrolled in 18 conservatoires.

A highly educated population, typically attaining upper secondary education

Compared to other European countries, a higher proportion of Czech citizens aged 25 to 64 years has attained upper secondary education: 92% compared to 75% on average in the OECD (OECD, 2014c, Table A1.2a). In fact, upper secondary is the highest level of education attained by the vast majority of Czech 25-64 year-olds (73%, compared to 44% on average in the OECD) (OECD, 2014c, Table A1.5b). This is similar to in other Eastern European countries, although, with the exception of Prague, the Czech regions dominate the top ten European regions on this indicator (Ballas et al., 2012, Table 3.15). In 2012, upper secondary graduation rates in the Czech Republic were around the OECD average (82% in the Czech Republic; 84% in the OECD) (OECD, 2014c, Chart A2.1). The majority of upper secondary graduates had completed an academic programme preparing the students for entry to university (58%; 61% on average in the OECD).

Historically low level of tertiary attainment, but a rapid expansion

Historically, the proportion of the Czech population that has attained tertiary education is comparatively low. In 2012, 19% of 25-64 year-olds held a tertiary qualification, compared to 32% on average in the OECD (OECD, 2014c, Table A1.3a). However, a steadily increasing proportion of young Czechs attains tertiary education and first-time graduation rates from university programmes are now just above the OECD average. In 2012:

• The first time graduation rate from university programmes was 40% – just above the OECD average and three times as many as in 1995 (13%) (OECD, 2014c, Table A3.2a).

• Twenty-eight per cent of Czech 25-34 year-olds had attained tertiary education (OECD, 2014c, Table A1.3a), representing an annual growth rate of 7.9% since 2000 – more than twice the rate than on average in the OECD (OECD, 2014c, Table A1.4a). The growth rate in tertiary education attainment is particularly pronounced among Czech women aged 25 to 34 (9.6%, compared to 6.0% for men) (OECD, 2014c, Table A1.4b).

• The difference between the younger and older generations in levels of tertiary attainment in the Czech Republic was slightly above the difference on average in the OECD (OECD, 2014c, Chart A1.3).

• Entry rates into university programmes were just above the OECD average (60% compared to 58% in the OECD) (OECD, 2014c, Table C3.1a) and have more than doubled since 2000 (25%) (Table C3.2a).

The link between educational attainment and employment is particularly pronounced

Employment rates are considerably lower for Czechs who do not have upper secondary education (41% compared to 73% with upper secondary education) and are 43 percentage points lower than those who have tertiary education – one of the biggest employment disadvantages among OECD countries (OECD, 2014c, Table A5.1a). Equally, unemployment rates for those without upper secondary education are significantly higher: in 2012, 25.5% for 25-64 year-olds, compared to 13.6% on average in the OECD, and 32.8% for 25-34 year-olds, compared to 19.8% on average in the OECD (OECD, 2014c, Table A5.2a). At the same time, results from the OECD Survey of Adult Skills indicate that among OECD countries the Czech Republic has the highest rates of skills mismatch with just under 30% of workers over-skilled (OECD, 2013c).

Toward the end of compulsory education Czech students perform around the OECD average

According to results from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Czech 15-year-olds perform around the OECD average in the reading and mathematics assessments and above the OECD average in the science assessment (Table 1.5). Across the different PISA performance areas, the Czech Republic has average proportions of both high and low performers, with the exception of fewer low performers in science – the area where Czech average performance was strongest (Table 1.5). However, between the PISA 2003 and 2012 assessments, there has been a steady decline in student performance on the mathematics assessment.

Selection from age 11 and strong link between school socio-economic composition and performance

The Czech Republic’s school system ranks among the most horizontally stratified in the OECD. Children may be selected to enrol in an eight-year gymnasium programme as early as age 11; on average in the OECD the first age of selection is 14 years (Table 1.6). Insights from PISA 2012 results show a very strong association between the school’s average socio-economic composition and the average performance of its students – more than double the score point difference found in the OECD on average (Table 1.6). Students in the most socio-economically advantaged schools scored an average of 588 points in the mathematics assessment – this compares to the Czech average performance of 499 points (OECD, 2013a, Table II.4.2).

By age 15, Czech students can be in 6 distinct educational programmes – twice the OECD average number. Some research has shown that family background strongly influences access to six- and eight-year gymnasium programmes (e.g. Koucký et al., 2004 and Münich, 2005 in Santiago et al., 2012). According to MŠMT (forthcoming) results of the Eurostudent V survey indicate a high degree of social selectivity that increase the differentiation of schools at all levels of the education system and favour the reproduction of elites. While students’ socio-economic background explains the same amount of variance in overall performance as in the OECD on average, the performance disadvantage for those from less advantaged socio-economic backgrounds is much greater than on average in the OECD (Table 1.6).

Access for children from more advantaged families to the most “prestigious” educational tracks (six- or eight-year gymnasium programmes) appears to be confirmed in international data showing that the Czech Republic has the lowest educational upward mobility rate of all OECD countries: 71% of 25-34 year-olds have the same attainment as their parents (compared to the OECD average of 52%); only 17% of 25-34 year-olds have exceeded their parents’ educational attainment (compared to the OECD average of 32%) (OECD, 2015e).

Comparatively low proportions of early school leavers and students who have repeated a school year

There is a comparatively low proportion of Czech 18-24 year-olds leaving school early (in 2014: 5.5% in the Czech Republic; 11.1% in the European Union on average), although this is increasing gradually, in contrast to the decreasing trend in the European Union (European Commission, 2015b). Similarly, a much lower proportion of Czech fifteen-year-olds reported having repeated a year at some stage of their schooling compared to on average in the OECD (Table 1.6).

However, it is an established practice in the Czech Republic to delay a child’s enrolment in basic school. In 2014/15, 19% of children admitted to Year 1 of basic education were older than 6 years.

Gender differences mirror those in the OECD in compulsory education, but become more pronounced in tertiary education

The magnitude and direction of performance differences between Czech boys and girls at age 15 mirrors that of their counterparts in the OECD on average (Table 1.5). Girls show a clear performance advantage in reading; boys perform better at mathematics; and there is no difference in science performance. However, in terms of access to and completion of tertiary education, Czech women dominate more than on average in the OECD. In 2013, the percentage of female tertiary graduates in the Czech Republic were among the highest in the OECD: 66% from 2-3 year programmes, 63% from bachelor’s or equivalent and 61% from master’s or equivalent, compared to OECD averages of 56%, 58% and 56% respectively (OECD, 2015e, Table A3.4). While women make up the majority of new entrants to tertiary education in all but three OECD countries, the Czech Republic sees the largest share of women (58%, compared to the OECD average of 54%) (OECD, 2015e, Table C3.2). At the same time, unlike in other OECD countries (with the exception of Korea), higher skilled Czech women are equally likely to be outside the labour force, compared to lower skilled women (OECD, 2013c).

Economic and educational inequalities among the Czech regions

Regional income (as measured by GDP) varies significantly within the Czech Republic. Half of the Czech national GDP is concentrated in the four regions with the largest populations (Table 1.2): Prague (25%), the Central Bohemian region (11%), the South Moravian region (10%) and the Moravian-Silesian region (10%) (Table 1.A1.1). All except the Moravian-Silesian region also enjoyed higher than the national average economic growth between 2005 and 2011 (Table 1.A1.1). In contrast, the two poorest regions (Liberec region and Karlovy Vary region) had very low growth compared to the Czech national average over the same period (Table 1.A1.1). However, with the exception of Prague, the proportion of 25-64 year-olds whose highest level of attainment is upper secondary education does not vary greatly among the Czech regions (Table 1.7). The population in Prague stands out as being comparatively much better educated and features among the top ten European regions with the lowest proportions of population over 15-years-old that has attained less than upper secondary education (Ballas et al., 2012, Table 3.18).

However, there are pronounced disparities among the Czech regions in terms of tertiary education attainment (Table 1.6). The regions Karlovy Vary and Ústi (collectively classified as the Northwest in European statistics) feature among the ten European regions with the lowest proportion of persons aged 15 or over with tertiary education (Ballas et al., 2012, Table 3.22). These regions also have the highest unemployment rates in the Czech Republic (Figure 1.A1.3) and a low proportion of students in tertiary education (Table 1.6). The literature suggests that, where education plays an important role, levels of tertiary education are most strongly linked with stronger regional economic performance and, therefore, rates of access to tertiary education and keeping tertiary graduates in a region are critical factors for economic performance (Ballas et al., 2012). When comparing regions across Europe, Prague has one of the highest proportions of students in tertiary education in relation to the 20-24 year-old population in the region (100%; joint third highest proportion across European regions), while the Central Bohemian region that surrounds Prague has the second lowest proportion among European regions (5.6%) (Ballas et al., 2012, Tables 3.10 and 3.11).

Unfortunately, there are no internationally comparable data allowing the comparison of performance between different Czech regions in the PISA assessments. However, results do allow a comparison of student performance on average between rural and urban areas. Among the Czech 15-year-olds participating in PISA 2012, 27% were in schools located in a city (over 1 million inhabitants), 66% were in schools located in a town (between 3 000 and 100 000 inhabitants) and 8% were in rural schools (fewer than 3 000 inhabitants) (OECD, 2013a, Table II.3.3a). Compared to observed performance differences between rural and urban areas internationally, these were rather moderate in the Czech Republic and were almost entirely accounted for by socio-economic differences (OECD, 2013a, Table II.3.3a).

Steep decline in the school age population has challenged the efficiency of the school network

One of the greatest challenges in recent years to the Czech school system has been the steep decline in the school-age population (MŠMT, forthcoming). The number of students in the Czech school system (compulsory education, upper secondary education and post-secondary non-tertiary education) dropped from 1.958 million in 1990/91 to 1.648 million in 2013/14, that is, a reduction of 16%. This decline has been dramatic in comparison to the evolution in the school-age populations in the European Union and certainly compared to in the OECD (Figure 1.3). While the decline has hit all age groups in compulsory and upper secondary education, demographic pressures hit lower secondary and upper secondary education the hardest: compared to in 1990, there was almost half the number of 10-14 year-olds in the Czech Republic in 2010; and the number of 15-19 year-olds is predicted to remain over 40% lower than the 1990 numbers until 2020 (Figure 1.3). While birth rates improved between 2000 and 2010, which saw an increase in capacity in primary education (the first stage of basic education), they have started to decline and this is predicted to continue over the coming years (Figure 1.3). This will exert renewed pressure on primary education (first stage of basic education).

Figure 1.3. Variation in school age population in the Czech Republic compared to in the OECD and the EU

1990 = 100

Source: OECD.Stat (n.d.), Historical population data and projections (1950-2050), Demography and Population (database), https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=POP_PROJ.