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Context
Schools in Canada have similar disciplinary climates in science lessons compared to other OECD countries, according to students’ reports in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015, with an index of disciplinary climate of -0.01 (the OECD average index value was 0.00). Student truancy in Canada was below the OECD average: 17.8% of 15-year-olds reported skipping at least one day of school in the two weeks before the PISA 2015 test, compared to the OECD average of 19.7%. However, students in Canada were among those most likely to report that their science teachers adapt their instructions more frequently than the OECD average, with an index of adaptive instruction of 0.26 (the OECD average index value was 0.01) (OECD, 2016[1]).
The PISA 2015 index of instructional educational leadership in Canada (measuring the frequency with which principals report doing leadership activities specifically related to instruction) was among the highest reported in the OECD at 0.58 (the OECD average was 0.01) (OECD, 2016[1]). In 2017, net teaching hours for general programmes in Canada were close to the OECD average. Teachers annually taught for 798 hours at primary level and 745 hours at lower secondary level, compared to OECD averages of 784 and 696 hours, respectively (OECD, 2018[2]). According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018, 86% of teachers in Alberta (Canada) said that if they could choose again, they would still become a teacher; this was higher than the OECD average of 75.6%. Furthermore, 62.7% of teachers in Alberta (Canada) felt that the teaching profession was valued in society, compared to an OECD average of 25.8% in 2018 (OECD, 2019[3]). According to school principals’ self-reports in PISA 2015, schools in Canada have lower levels of autonomy over curriculum compared to the OECD average: school autonomy levels over curriculum were among the lowest in the OECD: 62.9% of principals reported that the school had primary autonomy over curriculum compared to the OECD average of 73.4% (OECD, 2016[1]).
School leaders in Canada are less likely than the OECD average to report that self-evaluations are used in their schools (85.8% of students were in schools whose principal reported this compared to the OECD average of 93.2%) and also less likely than the OECD average to report that external evaluations are used in their schools (63.7% of students were in schools whose principal reported this, compared to the OECD average of 74.6%). The share of students enrolled in secondary schools in Canada whose principal reported that standardised tests are used to make decisions on students’ promotion or retention was 49.3%, which was higher than the OECD average of 31.3%, as reported in PISA 2015 (OECD, 2016[1]).
In 2017, local governments in Canada had full autonomy when making decisions related to resource management (allocation and use of resources for teaching staff and principals) compared to 18% on average across the OECD, where the highest level of autonomy (29%) went to schools. In 2015, expenditure on primary to tertiary education in Canada as a proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) was 6%, which was above the OECD average of 5%. The proportion coming from private sources (including household expenditure, expenditure from other private entities and international sources) was higher than the OECD average (26.5%, compared to 16.1%). Between 2010 and 2015, the relative proportion of public expenditure on primary to tertiary education in Canada decreased by 3.8 percentage points, a bigger decrease than the OECD average of 1.3 percentage points. During the same period, private expenditure on education in Canada increased by 12.2 percentage points, compared to an OECD average increase of 10.6 percentage points (OECD, 2018[2]).
Evolution of key education policy priorities
Canada’s key education policy priorities have evolved in the following ways over the last decade (Table 8.4).
Institutions
Selected education policy responses
School improvement
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In the province of Ontario, the New Teacher Induction Program (NTIP, 2006) aims to support the growth and professional learning of new teachers. It builds upon the first step of initial teacher education and is the second step of on-the-job learning along a continuum of learning and growth for new teachers. The NTIP consists of the following induction elements: 1) orientation for all new teachers with information about the Ontario curriculum and context, and their specific school; 2) professional development and training in areas such as literacy and numeracy strategies and classroom strategies; and 3) mentoring for new teachers by experienced teachers (Government of Ontario, 2018[101]; Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2010[102]). In addition to the NTIP induction process, new permanent teachers are evaluated twice within their first 12 months of employment through the Teacher Performance Appraisal process. Upon completion of two satisfactory evaluations, a notation reflecting completion of NTIP is placed on the teacher’s certificate of qualification and registration that appears on Ontario College of Teachers’ public register.
Progress or impact: Since 2009, the New Teacher Induction Program has been providing support for first-year, long-term occasional (LTO) teachers with assignments of 97 days or longer. In 2018, the scope of NTIP was expanded to enable school boards to support any teacher in their first five years of practice. The inclusion of these teachers in any of the NTIP induction elements is designed to provide boards with flexibility to respond to local hiring realities and to potentially support new teachers for a greater length of time. Boards may decide to include an entire category of NTIP eligible teachers or base the support they offer on a case-by-case basis. Overall, each year, approximately 8 000 new hired teachers access NTIP support. Including second-year teachers and mentors, the total number of teachers participating in NTIP exceeds 18 000 annually (National data provided to the OECD). The results of longitudinal research from 2012 to 2015 show that new teachers have made meaningful and sustained improvements in all four of the core goal areas of NTIP (confidence, efficacy, instructional practice and commitment to ongoing learning) (Christine Frank and Associates, 2018[103]).
Evaluation and assessment
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The province of Alberta’s digitally based Student Learning Assessments (SLAs, 2013) replaced the Grade 3 Provincial Achievement Tests. SLAs take place at the start of the school year and assess literacy and numeracy in language arts and mathematics in Grade 2 (Alberta Education, 2018[104]). Based on the results, the report aims to deliver information on the student’s strengths and areas for improvement relative to provincial standards at the beginning of the school year to students, teachers, and parents. In 2014/15, a pilot of the SLAs in Grade 3 took place (Alberta Education, 2018[105]).
Progress or impact: Some 20 randomly selected school authorities took part in the Student Learning Assessments Grade 3 pilot during 2016/17 (Alberta Education, 2016[106]). In 2018, SLAs had extended to Grade 3 in all schools (Alberta Education, 2018[107]). The teachers’ preview of the SLA digital questions and performance tasks aim to tailor the SLAs to the grade level. The SLAs can be used at the teacher’s discretion. Grade 3 SLAs cover four elements in English and French: digital literacy questions, literacy performance tasks, digital numeracy questions and numeracy performance tasks. It is expected that the SLA will continue to reference the current Grade 2 provincial programmes of study until the new programmes of study are implemented (Alberta Education, 2018[104]).
Additional education policies of potential interest to other countries
School improvement
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In the province of Saskatchewan (Canada), the Digital Citizenship Education in Saskatchewan Schools (2015) is a policy guide. It is designed for school division officials to work with school administrators and teachers to help students build an understanding of safe and appropriate online behaviour. The guide was developed in response to one of the recommendations in the Saskatchewan Action Plan to Address Bullying and Cyberbullying (2013) (Government of Saskatchewan, 2019[108]).
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The province of Nova Scotia’s Instructional Leadership Academy (NSILA, 2010) Program is offered by the Nova Scotia Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, in partnership with the Nova Scotia Educational Leadership Consortium. The goal of the programme is to improve the capacity for school-based instructional leadership, aimed at increasing student learning and achievement in Nova Scotia public schools. The programme extends over three years and leads to a Diploma in Instructional Leadership. The diploma indicates the level of commitment to the field of practice, increases and validates skills and knowledge, and recognises professionals who have met the standards of achievement.
Evaluation and assessment
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The Pan-Canadian Assessment Program (PCAP, 2007) was developed by the provinces and territories, through the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC), building on the School Achievement Indicators Program (SAIP, 1993). It assesses the performance of Grade 8 (Secondary II in Quebec) students in reading, mathematics, and science on a cyclical basis. PCAP is designed as a system-level assessment to be used primarily by provincial/territorial ministries of education to examine their education systems. PCAP data are reported at provincial/territorial levels, by the language of the school system, and by gender. The goal of national and international large-scale assessments is to provide reliable information about academic achievement and to gain a better understanding of the contextual factors influencing it. They also aim to provide policy makers, administrators, teachers, and researchers with insights into the functioning of education systems and how they might be improved. The assessment is not, however, designed to report valid results at the student, school, or school-board level. As of the 2019 PCAP, the assessment will be on line, in order to respond to technological developments and improve access to PCAP for special education needs students (CMEC, 2018[109]). Estimates expect approximately 30 000 students to participate in each cycle of the PCAP.
Systems
Selected education policy responses
Governance
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The Learn Canada 2020 framework (2008) is a joint declaration by provincial and territorial ministers of education, through their Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC). The framework aims to enhance Canada’s education systems, learning opportunities and overall education outcomes (National information reported to the OECD). It is built on what are considered the four pillars of lifelong learning, which are the same today: early childhood learning and development; elementary to high school systems; post-secondary education; and adult learning and skills development (Government of Canada, 2018[110]).
Progress or impact: Key priority areas within the Learn Canada 2020 framework include persisting gaps in academic achievement between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students across Canada. In 2012, for example, the Conference Board of Canada reported that between 2003 and 2012, the number of adults with inadequate numeracy skills had increased from 49% to 55%. Among the adult population, Indigenous people were more likely to have inadequate numeracy skills than the non-Indigenous population (The Conference Board of Canada, 2018[111]). In 2012, the gap was highest in Saskatchewan, where 79% of the Indigenous population had inadequate numeracy skills, compared with 54% of the non-Indigenous population (The Conference Board of Canada, 2018[111]). As a result, in 2013, ministers of education across Canada agreed that numeracy was a key priority and that “provinces and territories would work together to identify and share best practices on innovative teaching and learning strategies to raise student achievement in this area” (CMEC, 2013[112]).
Several Canadian provincial and territorial policies published since 2008 identify literacy as an ongoing challenge for their regions (Kozyra, Motschilnig and Ebner, 2017[113]). According to the 2017 UNESCO report on adult education in North America, the Government of Quebec published in 2017 its Policy on Educational Success and lists adult literacy as one of the major objectives, resolving to increase by five percentage points the proportion of the adult population of Quebec who demonstrates high-level literacy skills by the time results of the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, PIAAC) 2022 are available (Kozyra, Motschilnig and Ebner, 2017[113]). Also, in the province of British Colombia, the government promised CAD 2.4 million in funding for community adult-literacy programmes (Kozyra, Motschilnig and Ebner, 2017[113]).
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The Canadian province of Saskatchewan established the Early Years Plan (2016-20). The plan aims to ensure the development of all children aged 0-6 so that each year, at least 90 students exiting kindergarten are ready for learning in primary education (Government of Saskatchewan, 2017[114]). The plan is based on five pillars: healthy beginnings; early learning; childcare; strong families and healthy children; and community planning and alignment (Ministry of Education, 2016[115]).
Progress or impact: The Saskatchewan Government’s Annual Education Report for 2016-17 indicated that at least 15 269 children were enrolled in early learning and childcare services. The Saskatchewan province’s Ministry of Education also reported collaboration with post-secondary institutions, and the Ministries of Economy and Advanced Education, to support an increase in trained early childhood educators to ensure enough staff in place to support all 810 new childcare spaces planned for 2017. Some progress had also been achieved to ensure preparation for learning in primary school (Ministry of Education, 2016[116]).
Funding
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Canada’s Student Loans Program (CSLP) is among the actions undertaken by the Government of Canada to help make post-secondary education more affordable. The CSLP provides financial assistance to eligible students to cover part of their living and education-related costs with grants and loans. It has offered non-repayable grants to more than 3 million higher education students since 1995 (Government of Canada, 2019[117]). A 2017 national statistical review reported that in 2016/17, 380 000 students received non-repayable Canada Student Grants (CSGs) equivalent to CAD 1 014.6 million, which represented an increase from 369 000 students in 2015/16 who received CAD 719.5 million (Government of Canada, 2019[117]). Further national data highlights that 64% of CSG recipients in 2016/17 were low-income full- and part-time students, 27% were students from middle-income families, 10% were students with permanent disabilities, and 9% were students with dependents (Government of Canada, 2019[117]). In 2016, the Government of Canada budget increased by 50% the value of CSGs for students from low-income families and middle-income families, as well as part-time students. This was equivalent to an increase from CAD 2 000 to CAD 3 000 per year for students from low-income families; from CAD 800 to CAD 1 200 per year for students from middle-income families; and from CAD 1 200 to CAD 1 800 per year for part-time students. On 1 August 2017, new, more generous eligibility thresholds for the Canada Student Grant for Full-time Students (CSG-FT) were introduced. CSG eligibility for part-time students and students with dependents was also expanded as of 1 August 2018.
Progress or impact: Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC)’s Evaluation Directorate has undertaken multiple evaluations of Canada’s Student Loans Program to monitor its implementation and effectiveness. A summative evaluation of the CSLP during 2006-10 reviewed the validity of the programme’s rationale, needs assessment and success at promoting access to post-secondary education (Government of Canada, 2011[118]). The evaluation found positive results, such as the CSLP serving its purpose and mandate, or reducing students’ financial constraints. Research on general effects of loans and grants on post-secondary education enrolment of low-income students showed a positive correlation between the total loan amount disbursed and the post-secondary education participation rate. At the same time, research on the Canada Student Grants Program has been less conclusive in identifying strong relationships between grants alone and participation, except in survey results. One suggested explanation was the corresponding reduction in student loan amounts caused by the grant amounts and, hence, overall student financial aid remaining constant in most cases (Government of Canada, 2016[119]).
Additional education policies of potential interest to other countries
Governance
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An agreement (2017-22) between the province of New Brunswick’s Teachers Federation and the local provincial government includes several specific measures designed to help with the successful implementation of the 10-Year Plans (2016) for education (Government of New Brunswick, 2018[120]). The 10-Year Plans identified priority areas to improve education and performance at all education levels in the local Anglophone and Francophone sectors. Priorities include: establishing a culture of belonging; improving literacy and numeracy skills; ensuring proficiency in fundamental language skills; and fostering leadership, citizenship and entrepreneurial spirit (Government of New Brunswick, 2016[121]). In 2018, in accordance with the recent agreement, 17 schools across the province began participating in an initiative to increase by one hour per day the instruction time for students in kindergarten to Grade 2. The government anticipates that the additional instruction time will provide greater opportunities for teachers to help students achieve expected learning outcomes with a focus on literacy, numeracy, physical education, art and music. This is a joint initiative between the federation and the department. The project will run for three years and will be evaluated by independent experts. The agreement will also see the addition of 250 school-based teachers to the education system to support classroom teachers and work with students, particularly in classrooms with classroom composition challenges (Government of New Brunswick, 2018[120]).
Funding
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The Repayment Assistance Plan (RAP) for the Canada Student Loans Program had an increase in the loan repayment threshold in 2016. RAP consists of two stages of assistance. During Stage 1 (accounting for 81% of RAP recipients), the government covers the outstanding interest not met by the borrower’s reduced payment. During Stage 2 (accounting for 12% of RAP recipients), the government covers both the principal and interest amounts not met by the borrower’s reduced payment so that the balance of the loan is gradually paid off. This ensures that borrowers who use RAP on a long-term basis do not take longer than 15 years to repay their loan (10 years for borrowers with permanent disabilities). During 2017/18, more than 326 000 borrowers received assistance under RAP (an increase of 11% from the previous year). Some 88% of all RAP recipients were not required then to make any monthly payments for the duration of their RAP term (Government of Canada, 2019[122]). For borrowers who apply for RAP, monthly student loan payments depend on family income (limited to no more than 20% of a borrower’s family income) and family size (proportional changes were made to the thresholds for family sizes). The Government of Canada increased the loan repayment threshold in 2016 to provide increased flexibility in repayment and to better reflect minimum wages, helping to ease students’ transition into the workforce. The increase ensures that no eligible student has to repay their Canada Student Loan until they earn at least CAD 25 000 per year. The threshold is adjusted for family size. For example, for a family of four, no payment would be required until they are earning at least CAD 59 512. Above the no payment thresholds, the borrower could be eligible for an affordable payment.
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The Federal Government of Canada Budget launched the Skills Boost Initiative (2018-21) to provide enhanced student financial assistance and make better use of Employment Insurance (EI) flexibilities targeted to working or unemployed Canadians looking to return to school to upgrade their skills. It includes a three-year pilot project that will invest nearly CAD 300 million over its duration to develop and test new approaches. The pilot initiative proposes CAD 1 600 per-year top-up grants per school year to the Canada Student Grant for Full-time Students (CSG-FT) for students from low- or middle-income families who have been out of upper secondary education for at least ten years and are returning to follow a full-time post-secondary education programme of at least two years. This is equivalent to an additional CAD 200 per month for the student. The pilot also introduced flexibility to assess student eligibility for a Canada Student Grant based on the current (instead of previous) year’s income for applicants whose financial circumstances have changed significantly. The initiative also expands on funding measures implemented in the previous budget for full- and part-time students. Starting in 2018/19, part-time students from low- and middle-income families can benefit from up to CAD 1 800 in CSG. Also, students with dependent children will have access to grants: full-time students with children can receive up to CAD 200 per month per child; and part-time students with children can receive up to CAD 1 920 per year in grants. Skills Boost also provides more opportunities for Employment Insurance claimants to take training on their initiative and continue receiving EI benefits. EI claimants can take self-funded training and receive EI benefits when they continue to search and be available for work. They may also be referred to full-time training by designated authorities (i.e. provinces, territories or Indigenous organisations) and continue to receive EI benefits. This referred training may be self-funded or paid for by the designated authority. Finally, starting 5 August 2018, eligible EI claimants who have lost their jobs after several years in the workforce can ask Service Canada for permission to continue receiving EI benefits when taking a full-time course or training programme at an approved institution (Government of Canada, 2018[123]). [Note: The province of Quebec has its own programme for student loans and grants.]
More information is available at http://www.oecd.org/education/policyoutlook.htm.
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