Indicator D6. What are the pathways to becoming a teacher and a school head?

Becoming a teacher usually requires the completion of initial teacher education. Once completed, graduates of initial teacher education may be required to fulfil additional requirements before they can start teaching or be considered fully qualified. Once new teachers start work, schools may be required to offer them a formal induction.

For prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects, the duration of initial teacher education programmes ranges from 3 years in Costa Rica, the Flemish and the French Communities of Belgium, and New Zealand to 6.5 years in Germany. In nearly two-thirds of 36 OECD and partner countries and other participants, the duration of initial teacher education is the same for primary and lower and upper secondary teachers of general subjects. In less than two-thirds of the countries and other participants with comparable data, the duration of initial teacher education is 0.5 to 3.5 years shorter for pre-primary teachers than for lower secondary teachers of general subjects (Figure D6.2).

These differences in the duration of initial teacher education may reflect differences in the organisation of pedagogical and practical training and in the qualification awarded. Across 36 countries and other participants with available data, no single model of initial teacher education prevails for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects. The concurrent model, where pedagogical and practical training are provided at the same time as courses in the academic subject matter to be taught, is available in 27 countries and other participants. Meanwhile, the consecutive model, where pedagogical and practical training are provided after subject matter courses, is available in 22. In most countries, only one model of initial education is used, but 13 countries and other participants offer both. The average duration of consecutive model programmes (5.1 years) is about half a year longer than the average duration of concurrent model programmes (4.6 years). This differences in length can largely be explained by the duration of the pedagogical and practical training in the consecutive model, ranging from 0.5 years in Mexico to 3 years in Italy (Table D6.1 and Figure X3.D6.3 in Annex 3).

The most prevalent model of initial teacher education does vary depending on the level of education to be taught. The concurrent model is predominant for initial teacher education of pre-primary, primary and lower secondary teachers in more than three-quarters of OECD and partner countries with available information. In contrast, for prospective upper secondary teachers (teaching either general or vocational subjects), concurrent and consecutive models exist in an equal number of countries and other participants. More systems use both concurrent and consecutive models for prospective lower and upper secondary teachers of general subjects (13-14 countries and other participants) than for prospective pre-primary and primary teachers (5-6 countries and other participants) (Table D6.1).

In most countries and other participants, a tertiary qualification is awarded upon completion of initial teacher education, regardless of the level of education at which the teacher will teach. This not only signals the level of knowledge and skills that the new teacher has acquired, but may also indicate the social status of teachers. For example, graduates of initial teacher education programmes for lower secondary teachers of general subjects are usually awarded a bachelor’s degree (in 18 countries and other participants) or a master’s degree (in 20 countries and other participants). In countries and other participants where initial teacher education lasts for three to four years, graduates are awarded a bachelor’s degree, except in Costa Rica where a three-year programme leads to a master’s degree. In contrast, in countries where initial teacher education lasts more than four years, graduates are awarded a master’s degree, except in Colombia where a five-year programme leads to a bachelor’s degree (Table D6.1).

However, the type of tertiary qualification awarded at the end of initial teacher education varies according to the level of education at which the teacher will teach, or the subject taught. For prospective pre-primary teachers, the most prevalent type of qualification is a bachelor’s degree, but for prospective upper secondary teachers of general subjects a master’s degree is more common. For prospective secondary teachers of vocational subjects, bachelor’s or master’s degrees are equally prevalent, although a short-cycle tertiary qualification can also be awarded in England (United Kingdom), the Flemish Community of Belgium and Mexico (teachers at lower secondary level only) (Table D6.1).

The educational requirements for entry into initial teacher training, which are tertiary degree programmes, differ little. In most countries and other participants with available data, the minimum requirement is usually an upper secondary qualification. However, in a few countries, the minimum educational requirement for prospective pre-primary teachers is a lower secondary qualification (Austria, Brazil, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic). In Brazil this is also the case for prospective primary teachers. Costa Rica requires a short-cycle tertiary qualification for entry into initial teacher education at all levels of education, and in the Flemish Community of Belgium, a bachelor’s degree or equivalent is required for entry into initial teacher training to become an upper secondary teacher of general subjects (Table D6.2).

Some countries limit the number of student places for entry into initial teacher education (i.e. a numerus clausus policy). For example, over one-third of countries and other participants with available data implement numerus clausus policies for initial teacher education of pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers of general subjects, and most of them have one or more selective criteria, except Italy (for secondary teachers) and Norway (for pre-primary teachers) (Table D6.2).

Over two-thirds of the countries and other participants with data have at least one selective criterion to enter and/or to progress through initial teacher education. In most cases, selection occurs at entry, except in Germany and Italy where there is no selection to enter the initial teacher education programme, but there is for students to progress into the later stages (Figure D6.1 and Table D6.1).

Regardless of the level of education to be taught, the most widespread criterion for entry into initial teacher education is grade point averages from secondary school(s) or upper secondary examinations. Among countries and other participants with at least one criterion for prospective pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers of general subjects, nearly three-fifths use school grades or upper secondary examinations. Competitive examinations are used in about two-fifths of the cases with at least one criterion, interviews in less than two-fifths of the cases and a standardised test in less than one-fifth of the cases. Some countries use other criteria, such as portfolios of the candidates’ work, minimum grades in specific subjects and/or aptitude or competence examinations, but each of these is used in very few countries. In the majority of cases where entry is selective, a combination of criteria are used: over four-fifths of these countries and other participants use more than one criterion, or more than one can be used at the autonomy of each institution (Table D6.2).

Initial teacher education following the consecutive model may also use selection before students can progress to the next stage, in addition to validating the courses and degrees taken in the first stage. Eleven countries and other participants have a numerus clausus policy limiting the number of students who can progress to the next stage. In Mexico and Slovenia, even though the number of student places in the next stage is fixed and limited, there are no criteria used for selection of students. About half of the 22 countries and other participants with a consecutive model use at least one criterion to select which prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects can proceed to the next stage of initial teacher education. In the Czech Republic, criteria can vary within the country as they are set at the discretion of individual initial teacher education institutions. The criteria used include grade point averages from the first stage of initial teacher education, interviews, standardised tests and competitive examination (in four or less countries for each criterion). Four countries use other additional criteria, such as a professional suitability test, additional academic certifications/degrees and a minimum level of foreign language (Table D6.2).

The content of initial teacher education not only covers the academic subjects that prospective teachers will teach, but also pedagogical didactics, child and adolescent development, educational science, and sometimes research skills development. Prospective teachers are also usually required to participate in a teaching practicum.

In 20 out of 36 countries and other participants, all prospective teachers take a common set of courses, irrespective of the level of education or subject they will teach. For example, all students of initial teacher education in Japan are required to take certain courses (e.g. pedagogical studies/didactics and child/adolescent development studies). In the Flemish Community of Belgium, all initial teacher education programmes work towards the same framework, “Basic Competences”, which is the reference framework for teacher education of knowledge, skills and attitudes that every teacher must have (Table D6.3).

In initial teacher education programmes for lower secondary teachers of general subjects, the academic subject to be taught are mandatory for all students in nearly all 36 countries and other participants, except in Costa Rica and the Netherlands, where it is at the discretion of individual institutions, and in France where students are only advised to choose academic subject courses that they intend to teach in the first stage of initial teacher education (bachelor’s degree), but are required to take these courses in the second stage of initial teacher education (master’s degree) (Figure D6.3).

The required content areas of initial teacher education differ between prospective teachers of general and vocational subjects, and between teachers intending to teach at different levels of education. For example, studying the academic subject to be taught is mandatory in initial teacher education programmes for all prospective lower and upper secondary teachers of general subjects in nearly all countries. However, fewer countries and other participants require this for prospective pre-primary and primary teachers, or for secondary teachers of vocational subjects. It may be due to the nature of these levels of education and subjects. For example, at pre-primary level the concept of academic subject may not be clear, and at the secondary level prospective teachers of vocational subjects may be required to acquire vocational subject matter knowledge prior to or outside of initial teacher education programmes (Table D6.3).

Studying a minimum number of academic subjects is mandatory for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects in 18 countries and other participants. One academic subject is mandatory in one-half of these countries and two or more in the other half. In a few of these countries, other specific subjects are also mandatory for all prospective teachers, such as academic writing in Israel and a foreign language in the Slovak Republic (Table D6.3).

Academic subject studies might be taught either specifically to prospective teachers or as part of a wider course alongside students studying the subject for purposes other than teaching. Courses in relevant subject areas are provided specifically to prospective pre-primary, primary and lower secondary (general subjects) teachers in about three-fifths of the countries, and to prospective upper secondary (general subjects) teachers in less than half of the countries. The difference across levels of education could be explained by the extent of the knowledge that prospective teachers need to acquire and the organisation of initial teacher education: for example, the first stage of initial teacher education programmes following the consecutive model is often a bachelor’s programmes in an academic discipline (Table D6.3). Academic subject studies specific to prospective teachers may make it easier to integrate in cross-curricular topics, such as global citizenship education and education for sustainable development (see Box D6.1).

Educational science studies (e.g. psychology of education, sociology of education) is mandatory for prospective teachers at all levels of education and types of subjects in about three-quarters of the countries and other participants, and mandatory at the discretion of individual institutions in less than one-quarter. It is not offered to prospective vocational secondary teachers or general upper secondary teachers in Mexico (Table D6.3).

In nearly all countries, the study of child/adolescent development, which helps to prepare teachers for various non-teaching activities (e.g. student counselling, communication with parents/guardians), is either mandatory for all prospective teachers or mandatory at the discretion of individual institutions. However, there is some variation across different levels of education. The subject is mandatory in nearly three-quarters of countries and other participants for all prospective pre-primary and primary teachers, but this falls below two-thirds for prospective lower and upper secondary (general subjects) teachers. The variation may be related to differences in the task requirements of teachers (see Indicator D4) (Table D6.3).

In contrast to studies that are closely related to teaching and pedagogy, research skills development is less often mandatory for prospective teachers. For prospective teachers at primary and secondary (general subjects) levels, for example, it is mandatory for all prospective teachers in nearly three-fifths of the countries and other participants, mandatory at the discretion of individual institutions in nearly one-third of the countries and other participants, offered on a voluntary basis in Japan and not offered in Denmark (as an independent course) and Mexico. Among the countries and other participants where it is mandatory, either for all prospective teachers or at the discretion of individual institutions, less than half of them require a dissertation on pedagogical issues based on students’ own research (Table D6.3).

A teaching practicum provides initial teacher education students with a supervised/guided teaching experience where they can benefit from the instructional expertise of an experienced teacher. A teaching practicum is mandatory in order to teach at any given level of education in nearly all countries. The exceptions are Costa Rica (at all levels of education) and Greece (at the secondary level), where individual initial teacher education institutions decide whether a teaching practicum is mandatory, and Denmark (at upper secondary level) and Mexico (to teach vocational subjects at secondary levels, and general subjects at upper secondary level), where a practicum is not offered (Table D6.3).

In most countries where a teaching practicum is mandatory, its duration is the same for all prospective teachers at a given level of education (but can vary between levels of education). However, in Estonia, Greece (for prospective teachers at the pre-primary and primary levels) and the Slovak Republic, the duration of teaching practicum varies across initial teacher education institutions. In the Netherlands, the duration is at the discretion of the schools where student teachers perform teaching practicum. The length of the teaching practicum varies widely across countries. For example, for prospective teachers of general subjects at the lower secondary level, the teaching practicum ranges from 155 hours in Japan to 1 800 hours in Hungary, though the typical duration is less than 800 hours in three-quarters of the countries and other participants with data (Table D6.3).

As the teaching practicum is intended to allow student teachers to learn from an experienced teacher, mentor teachers take the main responsibility for supporting student teachers in all countries, except in Costa Rica where the support role is only filled by staff members of institutions in charge of the initial teacher education programme. Mentor teachers are engaged by a higher education institution in Ireland. Other people responsible for supporting student teachers during the practicum include staff from the teacher education institutions (in nearly 90% of the countries) and school management (in about 60% of the countries). In Italy, co-ordinating mentors oversee the organisation of school placements and liaise between mentor teachers and initial teacher education institutions (Table D6.3).

Although the mandatory content of initial teacher education programmes tends to be very similar within countries, the details of the curriculum may vary depending on the initial teacher education institutions providing them (see Box D6.2).

The requirements for entry into the teaching profession tend to be the same whatever the level of education or the type of subjects (general or vocational) the prospective teacher will teach. Graduates from initial teacher education programmes can immediately start teaching at the primary, lower secondary or upper secondary levels and acquire a full teaching qualification in about half of the 36 countries and other participants with available information. In the others, they need to meet additional requirements either before starting teaching or becoming fully qualified teachers. These include acquiring a credential or licence for teaching (in addition to the relevant academic qualifications), passing examinations and/or successfully completing an induction or probation period (Figure D6.1).

In about one-third of countries and other participants, graduates from initial teacher education programmes cannot start teaching until they fulfil some additional criteria. For example, candidates to teach general subjects at lower secondary level are selected on the basis of the results of competitive examinations in nine countries, need to acquire relevant credentials in five countries and must satisfy minimum performance requirements in a standardised test in four countries. Only one additional criterion is required to teach general subjects at lower secondary level in most of these countries where additional criteria exist, but more than one are required in Australia, Costa Rica, Greece, Italy, Japan and Türkiye (Table D6.6, available on line).

In almost half of the countries and other participants, new teachers must fulfil additional requirements to become fully qualified teachers, even if they are eligible to start teaching. For instance, new lower secondary teachers of general subjects need to acquire relevant credentials in Costa Rica, England (United Kingdom), New Zealand, Slovenia and Sweden; take an examination in Costa Rica, Hungary, Korea and Türkiye; or be selected through an open competitive process in Colombia. In one-third of the 36 countries and other participants, candidates must successfully complete a probation period before becoming a fully qualified lower secondary teacher of general subjects. The typical duration of the probation period ranges from 3 months in Costa Rica to 24 months in Greece, Hungary, Luxembourg and New Zealand. In England (United Kingdom), France, Greece, Hungary, Luxembourg, Spain and Türkiye, the probation period fully overlaps with the period of mandatory formal induction for new teachers (Table D6.6, available on line).

Formal inductions help new teachers make a successful start to their teaching career. Apart from Costa Rica, Latvia and Switzerland, such programmes are mandatory (for all teachers or at the discretion of individual schools) in at least one level of education. These induction programmes last 12 months or less in 20 countries and other participants, but 24 months or more in Hungary, Luxembourg, Mexico (at pre-primary, primary and general lower secondary levels), the Netherlands and New Zealand. Six countries and other participants either do not specify a duration, leaving induction programmes to be conducted at the discretion of individual schools (Australia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, and the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium) or do not define it at the national level (Colombia) (Table D6.6, available on line).

Formal induction often requires collaboration. Programmes are organised in collaboration between the school and the teacher education institution and/or ministry in nearly half of the countries and other participants where formal induction is mandatory (whether for all teachers or at the discretion of individual schools). More than one person and/or body is responsible for supporting new teachers during their formal induction in most countries which have it, except in Colombia where only mentor teachers support new teachers and in Korea where only local authorities support them (Table D6.6, available on line).

Almost four in ten countries and other participants with a mandatory formal induction programme require the individuals supporting new teachers to have formal training. In most countries, teachers can take on the responsibility as mentor teachers on a voluntary basis and/or at the request of their schools, and this additional responsibility often comes with a reduction in their teaching workload and/or financial compensation (see Indicators D3 and D4) (Table D6.6, available on line).

In a large majority of countries, new teachers in public educational institutions become either public sector employees or civil servants (see Definitions) once they are fully qualified. For example, lower secondary teachers of general subjects are most commonly public sector employees (in 18 out of 36 countries and other participants), followed by civil servants (in 12 countries). In Brazil, no information on the status of new teachers is available, but 70% of all teachers in service are civil servants. In Luxembourg, most teachers are civil servants, but there are some with public sector employees status. New teachers in public educational institutions are subject to general employment legislation as for other workers only in Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands and the Slovak Republic (Table D6.1).

In almost all countries, the employment status is the same for all new fully qualified teachers, whatever the level of education at which they teach. However, in Austria, Germany and New Zealand, new pre-primary teachers are general employees, while those in primary schools are public sector employees or civil servants. These subtle differences could result from different institutional arrangements between these levels (e.g. in New Zealand, pre-primary education is provided in early childhood education centres while primary and secondary education are provided in school settings) and/or differences in the level of qualification acquired through initial teacher education (Table D6.1).

The legal employment status is the same for secondary teachers of general and vocational subjects in all countries and other participants with data. In England (United Kingdom), all teachers of vocational subjects teach in government-dependent private institutions, and thus are not public sector employees, unlike teachers of general subjects in public institutions (Table D6.1).

Many countries offer pathways into the teaching profession for individuals with professional experience outside teaching and without teaching qualifications. These pathways diversify the teaching workforce and could help mitigate immediate teacher shortages. Prospective teachers taking these alternative routes (referred to as side-entrants) may start teaching immediately without any additional requirements, or be required to take relevant teacher training in various formats (e.g. training in typical teacher education institutions or school-based training) before and/or while teaching.

In many countries and other participants, the existence and types of alternative pathways vary between levels of education, possibly reflecting varying degrees of teacher shortages. For example, Luxembourg only provides alternative pathways for primary teachers, due to a shortage of primary teachers in the school year 2020/21. Alternative pathways are slightly more common for teachers of vocational subjects than for general subjects: at upper secondary level, more types of pathways are available for teachers of vocational subjects than their counterparts teaching general subjects in five countries and other participants (Table D6.7, available on line).

There are alternative pathways to teaching for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects in more than half of the countries and other participants with available information (20 out of 36). Usually, there are just one or two alternative routes for side-entrant teachers per country, but in the Netherlands and the Slovak Republic there are four or more (Table D6.7, available on line).

Side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level can start teaching with no requirement to complete training in 8 out of the 20 countries and other participants offering such routes. However, this pathway is limited to applicants meeting specific conditions (e.g. in Poland, for side-entrant teachers who will acquire a teaching qualification within a year) or for exceptional circumstances such as a lack of teachers in some areas or subjects (e.g. in Austria and the French Community of Belgium) (Table D6.7, available on line).

Training in typical teacher education institutions (e.g. providers of initial teacher education) is the most common form of training required for side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level (in about four in five countries). About one-third of the countries provide other types of training that are mostly school-based, in other types of institutions (e.g. the “Choose to Teach” programme in Lithuania) and/or via distance learning (Table D6.7, available on line).

These alternative forms of training allow some flexibility as they can be attended on a part- or full-time basis and taken before and/or after starting teaching. Training is available on a full-time basis in three-fifths of the countries and on a part-time basis in a similar number of countries, lasting for between 12 and 60 full-time equivalent months (for countries for which the duration of the training can be reported). In nearly all countries with some information on training requirements, side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level can choose to take training either before they start teaching or while they are working as teachers. Only Germany and New Zealand (for full-time training programmes) require side-entrants to take the training before starting their teaching activities. Side-entrants who have taken relevant training become fully qualified everywhere except in New Zealand, where they need to also successfully complete induction before they are awarded a full practising certificate, which is the same as for new teachers who completed typical initial teacher education programmes (Table D6.7, available on line).

Side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level are paid according to the same salary scale as other teachers in most countries, except in Austria and the French Community of Belgium where side-entrant teachers who started teaching without training have different compensation. Although these side-entrants may bring some diversity into the teacher population, their past work experience is not likely to be taken into account in their starting salary: it is not considered when setting their starting salary in six countries and only considered at the discretion of the school or education authorities in another six countries and other participants. Prior experiences has some impact on starting salaries in Austria, where up to 10 years of work experience is considered; the French Community of Belgium, where public sector experience is considered; and the Slovak Republic, where experience in the subject taught is considered (Table D6.7, available on line).

Becoming a school head can be a career development option for teachers wishing to take on leadership responsibilities, and the chance to benefit from higher salaries (see Indicator D3). Among the 36 countries and other participants with information on pathways to becoming teachers, most could also provide information on pathways to becoming a school head. The exception is Brazil where the relevant regulations are established by subnational education networks, so no information is available at the national level.

In more than four-fifths of these countries and other participants, teachers can apply for positions as heads of schools covering only lower secondary general programmes if they are fully qualified. Among others, candidates in Lithuania and Norway are not required to be fully qualified teachers, and in Denmark, Estonia, the Netherlands and Sweden, eligibility conditions to apply to these positions is not strictly limited to teachers (Table D6.4).

In four-fifths of the countries and other participants with data, teachers need to satisfy at least one selective criterion to apply for a school head position in schools covering only lower secondary general programmes. Teaching experience is the most common requirement, applied in three-quarters of the countries and other participants with at least one selective criterion (see Box D6.3 for more details). Other requirements are used in three to ten countries and other participants: professional development courses that do not give credentials upon completion, eligibility based on the results of competitive examinations, interviews, meeting minimum standards in a standardised test, credentials from professional development courses, additional academic experience, and one or two years of leadership experience. In Poland, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia, only teachers with senior teacher categories/positions are eligible to apply (Table D6.4).

School head positions might also appeal to those who are not teachers, but have leadership ambitions or higher earnings expectations, as salaries for school heads are higher than the average for tertiary-educated workers (see Indicator D3). However, about one-third of countries and other participants with data available allow school heads to be recruited from outside the teaching profession. Even in countries offering this pathway, it has not usually been used by the majority of the current population of school heads (see Annex 3 for more information). The eligibility requirements for non-teachers applying for a school head position include a higher level of academic qualification than fully qualified teachers (e.g. in Lithuania and the French Community of Belgium), some leadership experience (e.g. in Estonia, Lithuania, Poland and Switzerland), success in a competitive examination (e.g. in France) or a minimum level of experience in the teaching or education sector (e.g. in Korea and Sweden). There is no specific or additional eligibility requirements for non-teachers to become a school head in Denmark (for schools covering primary and lower secondary general programmes only), England (United Kingdom) and Mexico (for schools covering only vocational programmes). In Denmark, the position of school head covering primary and lower secondary general programmes only is statutorily open to anyone who is interested and eligibility is not restricted by minimum requirements, although in practice, the applicants to these positions are qualified teachers (Table D6.4).

As with teachers who enter the teaching profession through alternative pathways, the starting salaries of school heads do not often reflect any work experience acquired outside education. For heads of schools covering only lower secondary general programmes, for example, any work experience outside the sector does not affect starting salaries in four countries, and may have an impact at the discretion of the school or education authorities in three countries and other participants. Only in France and Korea (where all years of work experience outside education are recognised), and in the French Community of Belgium (where only experience in the public sector is considered) is work experience outside education taken into account (Table D6.4).

Eligible candidates for a school head position go through a selection process in most countries and other participants with data, except Denmark (for pre-primary schools), England (United Kingdom) (for schools covering only vocational programmes), Italy and Luxembourg. In Italy, all eligible candidates who pass a competitive examination are registered in a roster, and then assigned to vacancies (Table D6.8, available on line).

At the lower secondary level (general programmes only), 30 countries and other participants have a selection process for school heads. The national level (or central level) education authorities provide a specific list of criteria for a standardised competitive process and/or a framework-based competitive process in about nearly two-thirds. In 13 countries and other participants, the selection process is at the discretion of local educational authorities, while in 8 it involves elections among the members of the school community (Table D6.8, available on line).

At this level, among the 19 countries where the national/central education authorities provide some guidelines on the selection process for school heads (whether standardised or based on a framework), nearly all of them assess more than one element in the selection process. The elements assessed in at least two-thirds of these countries are: pedagogical knowledge, academic qualifications, teaching experience, record of professional training in pedagogy, a presentation of a school development plan, experience in management/leadership, leadership skills, and record of professional training in management/leadership (Table D6.8, available on line).

In more than three-fifths of the countries with a standardised and/or framework-based selection process, multiple authorities and groups participate in the selection process. The most common levels of authority involved are local educational authorities (in 15 countries), followed by parents/guardians of the students in the school, teachers at the school, local networks of school heads, and central or national education authorities. In a few cases, the school’s students (in Austria, Lithuania and Spain), non-teaching personnel (in France, the Slovak Republic and Spain) and teachers’ organisations (in Israel and Poland) can also be involved in the selection process (Table D6.8, available on line).

There are hardly any differences in the school head selection process in schools at different levels of education or offering vocational programmes, compared to schools covering lower secondary general programmes only. Exceptions are England (United Kingdom) (schools covering only vocational programmes), Hungary (schools with vocational programmes), Israel (upper secondary schools), the Slovak Republic (upper secondary schools) and Slovenia (upper secondary schools) (Table D6.8, available on line).

Alternative pathways are mechanisms that grant entry into teaching for individuals with professional experience gained outside education and who do not hold full teaching qualifications. Individuals entering the teaching profession by alternative pathways are referred to as side-entrants.

Competitive examination refers to an examination organised by local, regional or national authorities in order to select applicants with the best results for a limited and fixed number of places for student teachers and/or for teachers for the public education system.

Concurrent model is an organisation of initial teacher education in which pedagogical and practical training are provided at the same time as courses in the academic subject matter to be taught.

Consecutive model is an organisation of initial teacher education in which pedagogical and practical training follow courses in (academic) subject matter. Under this model, students first obtain a degree or qualification in one or more subject areas then study the theory and practice of education as an additional academic degree or qualification programme.

Credential or licence refers to a certification, licence or similar document granted by a government agency or institution that attests that a teacher is qualified and meets the standard to teach in the public education system. The requirements for a credential or licence exceed the education diploma.

Formal induction is defined as a range of structured and repeated activities to support new teachers’ introduction into the teaching profession. It includes mentoring by experienced teachers, peer work with other new teachers, etc. Induction should be distinguished from a teaching practicum, which is part of initial teacher education.

Initial teacher education refers to the formal education and practical training that individuals must complete to obtain the diploma or degree required to become a public school teacher (excluding alternative pathways). Initial teacher education refers to both the study in particular field(s) of study and pedagogical and practical training, even when they are organised in consecutive stages.

Legal employment status for teachers could be: a civil servant, a public sector employee (an employee subject to specific legislation for public sector employees without being a civil servant) or a general employee (subject to the same general employment legislation as workers in the private sector).

Numerus clausus policies limit the number of student places for entry into initial teacher education and/or to progress to the next stage of the consecutive model of initial teacher education programmes.

Standardised test refers to a test organised by local, regional or national authorities in order to select applicants who meet the minimum performance requirements to become student teachers and/or teachers for the public education system.

Probation period refers to the employment status of starting teachers who get tenure on condition of satisfactory performance during a certain period. This mandatory work experience is required to be a licensed teacher in some countries.

Teaching practicum provides students (prospective teachers) with a supervised/guided teaching experience during their initial teacher education where they can benefit from the instructional expertise of an experienced teacher.

Thirty-six OECD and partner countries and other participants contributed to the 2021 OECD-INES-NESLI survey on pathways to becoming teachers and school heads used to develop this indicator: Australia, Austria, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Denmark, England (United Kingdom), Estonia, Finland, France, the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Scotland (United Kingdom), the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Türkiye.

See Annex 3 for country-specific notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf).

Data are from the 2021 OECD-INES-NESLI survey on pathways to becoming teachers and school heads and refer to the school year 2020/21.

References

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[3] Musset, P. (2010), “Initial Teacher Education and Continuing Training Policies in a Comparative Perspective: Current Practices in OECD Countries and a Literature Review on Potential Effects”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 48, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5kmbphh7s47h-en.

[2] OECD (2021), Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b35a14e5-en.

[7] OECD (2019), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en.

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[4] UNESCO (1975), “Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms”, in Records of the General Conference, 18th session, Paris, 17 October to 23 November 1974, v. 1: Resolutions, UNESCO, France.

[6] UNESCO-UIS (2022), Metadata and Methodological Documents (SDG 4.7.1), https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2021/09/Metadata-4.7.1.pdf (accessed on 30 May 2022).

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