Quantum technologies harness the unique behaviours of atomic-scale particles, such as superposition and entanglement, to improve data gathering, processing and communication beyond the reach of classical information and communication technologies. Among these, quantum sensing is the most mature technology. Quantum computing remains in a relatively earlier stage of development, facing science and engineering challenges. Quantum communication has been successfully demonstrated but still faces obstacles in scaling and implementation. However, recent developments suggest all three technologies are moving toward commercialisation.
These technologies promise significant advancements in innovation across various business sectors and could also help address societal challenges. Hybrid systems that combine quantum and classical computing are anticipated to accelerate innovation, while quantum AI holds long-term potential.
At the same time, quantum computing could break current, widely used encryption methods, potentially compromising the security of nearly all data transmitted over the Internet. Highly precise quantum sensors could also be misused for invasive surveillance. Applications in cryptanalysis, intelligence gathering and weapons development, among others, raise national security concerns that are driving countries to develop domestic capabilities.
Government support is playing a key role in advancing fundamental research in quantum and helping businesses turn breakthroughs into real-world applications. Public funding not only drives innovation but also ensures oversight of potential risks associated with these technologies.
International collaboration is needed to realise the potential of quantum technologies, even as security risks, dual-use concerns, and competition for technological leadership cause tensions. A global, values-based approach—informed by diverse stakeholders—is needed to define responsible quantum development and build trust in cross-border partnerships.
Quantum Technologies as a New Paradigm for Digital Economies and Societies
One hundred years ago, quantum mechanics allowed scientists to understand the unique behaviours of atoms and subatomic particles. In superposition, a particle can be in multiple places or states at the same time until it is measured. Entanglement allows particles to become so intricately linked, that they cannot be measured or described independently of one another, regardless of how far apart they are. Over the past decades, important strides have been made to harness these effects and realise technology applications.
Supported by a group of government, industry and academic experts spanning 21 nationalities, the OECD is exploring the new paradigm quantum technologies represent for digital economies and societies. The International Year of Quantum Science and Technology provides a timely and welcome occasion to focus attention on these developments and the emerging policy issues.
In classical information and communication technologies, the basic unit of information is the binary digit (or bit) representing 0 or 1. Superposition allows a single quantum bit (or qubit) to represent 0, 1 or any value in between, enabling quantum systems to process more information in parallel. Additionally, entanglement creates a strong correlation among qubits, allowing them to work together and efficiently solve certain complex calculations much faster than the most powerful supercomputers. Quantum technologies thereby exploit the unique properties of qubits to gather, process and transmit information far beyond what can be achieved using today’s classical technologies (see Figure 1). Quantum sensing measures physical quantities like time, magnetic fields and luminosity with unprecedented sensitivity and precision. Quantum computing is expected to solve problems that are challenging or even intractable for today’s most advanced computers. Quantum communication uses the quantum properties of particles to encode and transmit information, enabling networks of interconnected quantum sensing and computing devices and strengthening digital security.
Quantum sensing, computing and communication are advancing at different rates. Quantum sensing is the most developed, with first-generation technologies like atomic clocks and quantum magnetometers already in use for applications such as GPS and medical imaging. These devices provide high precision and sensitivity, while newer second-generation sensors show promise for navigation and environmental monitoring.
Quantum computing, on the other hand, is in a relatively nascent stage due to the challenge of managing the fragile quantum states necessary for computation. While significant progress has been made in developing quantum algorithms and hardware platforms, current devices—such as noisy intermediate-scale quantum computers—remain prone to errors and are limited in size and practical utility. Achieving fault-tolerant, large-scale quantum computing capable of broadly outperforming classical computers remains a future milestone. However, recent breakthroughs in error correction have improved the prospects for reliable and scalable quantum computers.
Quantum communication falls somewhere in between; quantum key distribution has been successfully demonstrated in real-world settings, offering highly secure communication. However, deployment challenges like limited transmission distances and high costs hinder widespread adoption. Positive developments and experiments in dedicated quantum communication equipment and networks also indicate progress in addressing such challenges.
Source: OECD (2025), “A quantum technologies policy primer”, OECD Digital Economy Papers, No. 371, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/fd1153c3-en.
With data serving as a foundational resource and an engine of innovation and economic growth, the advanced capabilities of quantum technologies in data gathering, processing and transmission, once sufficiently mature, could be a source of productivity gains and competitive advantage across various business activities. In healthcare, quantum sensors are advancing early disease detection and the real‑time monitoring of medical treatments, while future quantum computers could accelerate drug discovery and personalised medicine. Finance stands to benefit from quantum algorithms that may optimise portfolio management, improve fraud detection and support high-frequency trading. In energy and extractive industries, quantum computing could model materials for better batteries and optimise renewable energy grids, whereas sensing applications are enabling the precise detection of underground oil, gas and mineral reserves, promising to reduce exploration costs and environmental impact. Quantum communication is expected to strengthen digital security in specific areas such as banking, data exchange between data centres and the protection of critical infrastructures.
While today’s classical technologies already assist the above business applications, the anticipated capabilities of quantum technologies promise significant advancements in innovation. Quantum magnetometers, for example, can detect changes in magnetic fields that are approximately six orders of magnitude weaker than what classical magnetometers can detect. A quantum computer running simulations of materials science may perform exponentially faster than a classical computer, e.g. reducing a computation that would normally take 100 years to complete to just a few minutes. Quantum key distribution is a quantum communication technique that encodes cryptographic keys in particles such as photons, providing an unprecedented layer of digital security.
Many commercial applications will help tackle some of today’s most pressing societal challenges. In the fight against climate change, for example, quantum technologies could lead to new and improved renewable energy sources, advanced batteries and carbon-capture methods. To ensure access to clean water, quantum technologies could help monitor the quality of underground water reservoirs and aid in the development of new filtration materials that purify water more effectively. Applications in agriculture could strengthen food security through improved monitoring of crop health and stress levels and by supporting the development of next-generation fertilisers and alternatives to pesticides and herbicides.
The convergence of quantum technologies with classical computing and networks is expected to augment these benefits. Hybrid systems are emerging, combining the strengths of classical supercomputers with quantum processors to tackle problems more effectively than either could alone. The integration of quantum communication methods with future 6G networks is being explored to strengthen digital security. While quantum AI applications, such as accelerating machine learning through quantum computing, remain a longer-term prospect due to hardware and algorithmic limitations, AI already supports quantum technology development. For instance, machine learning is enhancing quantum sensing by refining measurements and reducing noise, leading to more accurate and resource-efficient data collection. AI is also helping to design optimal configurations for quantum experiments and improving the interpretation of complex data from quantum systems.
One of the most significant concerns is the potential impact on digital security, particularly through the development of quantum computers capable of breaking widely used encryption methods. This capability could compromise the security of digital communications and transactions that underpin today’s economies. The threat extends beyond theoretical possibilities, as malicious actors could intercept and store encrypted data today for future decryption when quantum computers become powerful enough. To address this risk, cybersecurity agencies and financial authorities, among other government actors, recommend that public and private organisations start to implement new cryptographic standards that are resistant to quantum attacks. This transition is complex and time-intensive, as it involves updating cryptographic systems across a vast number of devices and networks. Quantum key distribution could provide a complementary role in strengthening digital security.
Additionally, the extreme precision of quantum sensors raises privacy risks, as they could enable unprecedented surveillance. Quantum illumination, for example, may allow observation of objects not in the direct line of sight or in extreme low-light conditions. Quantum magnetic sensors might enable malicious individuals to intercept near-field communication signals from afar, potentially extracting payment details from bank cards or smartphones. Commercial uses of quantum sensors that process intricately personal data, such as in healthcare and medicine, challenge the notion of informed consent. Furthermore, the dual‑use nature of quantum technologies, such as their application in intelligence gathering, advanced weapon development or cryptanalysis, raises national security concerns. These concerns induce countries to invest in and develop capacity in quantum technologies domestically, aiming to reduce reliance on other countries.
Governments have several policy opportunities to harness the benefits of quantum technologies. Given the lengthy timelines and financial risks involved, many governments have introduced national strategies and funding programmes to develop quantum technologies. Government support plays a crucial role in supporting fundamental research and in helping companies bring commercial opportunities to fruition. In addition to funding measures, establishing benchmarks to assess and compare quantum technological capabilities can help monitor technological progress and guide investments.
Quantum technologies also raise various policy challenges. International collaboration is needed to solve pending bottlenecks in quantum science and engineering and to tackle global policy issues, but considerations around digital security, privacy, dual-use applications and technology leadership are creating frictions in co-operation efforts. Governments face the delicate task of opening their technology ecosystems while safeguarding against misuse and misappropriation of results. Furthermore, to accelerate development and adoption, public research and education systems will need to train a whole new generation of scientists, technicians and professionals that will make up the quantum workforce, as well as constraints in the emerging supply chains of critical materials and components. Moreover, the concentration of investments in developed countries risks worsening global inequalities and limiting the economic and societal benefits of quantum technologies.
Quantum technologies hold the promise of a new technological era, but realising their potential requires thoughtful, anticipatory policymaking. By investing in research, fostering international collaboration and addressing anticipated downside risks (e.g. to privacy and digital security), governments can help ensure that quantum technologies benefit all of society. With technology experts and policymakers, the OECD is working to improve understanding of the implications and potential of these technologies. This first exploration has culminated in the OECD quantum technologies policy primer. This work provides a baseline reference for those who want to understand the developments and implications of these technologies. It will also serve as a foundation for the OECD to build consensus around the principles guiding the responsible development and use of quantum technologies.
Learn more about quantum technologies, their capabilities, limitations and how they could support industries and help tackle societal challenges by enabling breakthroughs in computing, sensing and communication. Policymakers should recognise the long-term investment required for most of these technologies to mature, the digital security and privacy risks they raise and how such risks could be mitigated. This includes notably raising awareness in public and private organisations of the need to transition to quantum-resilient cryptographic solutions.
Facilitate collaboration among academia, industry and public agencies to support quantum technology ecosystems. Public-private partnerships fund technology investments that can aid in aligning longer-term public benefits with shorter-term business goals. Additionally, technology benchmarking and standardisation initiatives can help ensure quantum technologies transition efficiently from research to real-world applications.
Assess and address constraints in workforce skills and supply chains. Policymakers can collaborate with industry and academia to map skill demands, tailor STEM education and support quantum-specific training programmes. For supply chains, they can map sources of critical materials and components, identify vulnerabilities and explore diversification pathways.
Foster international co-operation that helps align funding initiatives and leverages cross‑border skills and capabilities. Inclusive collaboration can help address global challenges while preventing the deepening of existing divides. Policymakers could help define shared principles for the human-centric and values-based development and use of quantum technologies.
Read the full paper:
OECD (2025), “A quantum technologies policy primer”, OECD Digital Economy Papers, No. 371, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/fd1153c3-en.
Elizabeth THOMAS-RAYNAUD (✉ elizabeth.thomas-raynaud@oecd.org)
Andres BARRENECHE (✉ andres.barreneche@oecd.org)