In Europe, inequality across regions is now as high as inequality across countries
Convergence is driven by the poorest “low‑income” regions
A middle income trap ensnared “low‑growth” regions after the 2007‑08 crisis
The most productive "frontier" region often remains at the top over time
Frontier regions tend to be urban, but catching up can happen anywhere
Demographic pressures are unevenly distributed
The move towards metropolitan areas
Rapid growth before the 2007‑08 crisis was not always sustainable
Seven year cycles of growth and decline in Andalusia (Spain) and Central Macedonia (Greece)
Real per capita GDP has started to recover, but many regions remain below pre-crisis levels